Xiang Yu grew to a height of over six feet. Besides being cai qi guo ren, “exceptionally quick-witted,” he was so strong that he could lift a ding (heavy three-legged bronze cauldron) above his head with ease. All the young men of Wuzhong were in awe, and a little afraid, of him. (Ability to lift a ding of a certain weight was a measure of a man’s strength in ancient China. Recently, a Qin dynasty ding made of bronze was unearthed at a burial site. It weighed 467 pounds.) A photo of it was published in the October 2001 issue of National Geographic magazine.
After the frontier guards’ revolt in the summer of 209 B.C.E., the news spread throughout the empire and the whole of China was aflame. Two months later the governor of the province that included Wuzhong decided to join the revolution. He summoned Fourth Uncle and said, “There have been armed uprisings in many places. It is Heaven’s will that the Qin dynasty should fall. I have heard it said that xian fa zhi ren, ‘he who strikes first will gain control of others,’ whereas he who follows will be dominated by others. Therefore I am joining the revolution and hereby appoint you and Huan Chu as my generals.” Huan Chu was a condemned rebel warrior who was then in hiding.
Fourth Uncle replied, “The only one who knows the whereabouts of Huan Chu is my nephew Xiang Yu. He is waiting for me outside. Let me go and find him.” He went out and instructed Xiang Yu to unsheathe his sword and await his signal. Reentering the governor’s headquarters, Fourth Uncle sat down calmly opposite the governor and said, “Your Highness should order Xiang Yu to come in now and go in search of Huan Chu.”
The governor summoned Xiang Yu. Almost immediately after his nephew entered the room, Fourth Uncle flashed him the previously arranged go-ahead sign, striking first according to the spirit of the proverb xian fa zhi ren, “he who strikes first will gain control of others.” Xiang Yu swung his sword and beheaded the governor on the spot with one stroke. Fourth Uncle strode out holding the governor’s head aloft in his right hand while wearing the beheaded dignitary’s seal of office on his belt. All the officials who saw him were alarmed, and some were angry. Pandemonium broke out, but this was quickly quelled by Xiang Yu, who ruthlessly killed almost one hundred men. Everyone was cowed into silence and groveled on the ground without daring to get up.
Fourth Uncle sent for the army commanders, ministers, and other men of influence whom he had befriended in the past. He informed them that he was revolting against the Second Emperor and invited them to join him. Soon he had a force of 8000 men with his twenty-four-year-old nephew, Xiang Yu, as second in command. Because the name Xiang was revered throughout Chu, uncle and nephew were soon joined by other rebel armies who subordinated themselves to the pair, including the army under the command of Liu Bang.
Liu Bang was from a peasant family in the district of Pei, a few hundred miles from Wuzhong but still part of the former state of Chu. Born in 257 B.C.E., he was twenty-four years older than Xiang Yu. He had a distinguished appearance with a prominent nose, broad forehead, and luxuriant beard on his cheeks and chin. Legend has it that the first time his future father-in-law set eyes on him, he was so impressed by Liu Bang’s physiognomy that he gave him his beloved daughter as his bride.
Huo da da du, “generous and big-hearted,” Liu Bang was open-minded and always surrounded by friends. As a young man, he tended to be lazy and bu shi jia ren sheng chan, “refused to do the kind of work performed by his father and brothers,” such as farming and carpentry. Although he had grand ideas and many interests, he did not know what he really wanted to do. He liked wine and women and, much to his father’s despair, lived off his family during his youth and spent much time drinking in wine shops and buying wine on credit. Finally, at the age of thirty, he passed the tests for becoming a government official and was made an administrator, or chief, of a ting.
A ting was a unit composed of 250 to 500 families, and as chief, Liu Bang was in charge of both military and civil affairs. The laws of Qin were strict, and many people had been arrested for violations. The First Emperor would sentence these convicts to forced labor on his massive building projects. After the First Emperor’s death his son, the Second Emperor, continued this policy.
One of Liu Bang’s duties as chief was to escort convicts from his ting in the district of Pei to the capital city of Xianyang to work on the First Emperor’s palaces and tomb. Thus he had ample opportunity to observe the pomp and grandeur surrounding His Majesty. Awed and inspired by the spectacle, he once sighed deeply and muttered, “Ah! This is how a real man should live!”
In the year 209 B.C.E. there was general unrest throughout China and min bu liao sheng, “the common people had few means of livelihood.” Like everyone else, convicts from the district of Pei were also aware of the many rebellious armies being formed in Chu and other areas. About that time Liu Bang was escorting a levy of convicts from Pei to Mount Li to work on the First Emperor’s tomb. Under Qin law, Liu Bang as chief was personally responsible for each prisoner and would receive severe punishment if anyone escaped.
No sooner did they start off on their long, arduous journey than many of the convicts ran away to enlist in the rebel armies. As Liu Bang watched his prisoners disappear one by one, he became increasingly alarmed. There was the very real possibility that by the time he reached his destination he would be the only one left. Not knowing how to face the consequences, he made a drastic decision. At the next rest stop he treated his men to wine and drank with them deep into the night. Then he released them and said, “Gentlemen, you are free to leave and go wherever you wish. Since I’ve already lost so many prisoners, I can no longer go home. I have no choice but to set you all free and become a fugitive myself, just like you.”
Most of the men walked off, but ten of the strongest convicts decided to follow him. Together they hid from the authorities in the mountain bush and marshes. More and more joined them protesting the oppressive taxes, harsh laws, and forced labor. Soon Liu Bang’s band numbered several hundred.
At that time ambitious men throughout China were murdering the ruling Qin officials, calling men to arms, and establishing themselves as warlords. Many of the scattered feudal nobility of the six former states were also lying in wait to restore their previous status. In the ninth month of 209 B.C.E. the magistrate of the district of Pei (Liu Bang’s hometown) decided to rebel. He dispatched Fan Kuai, a powerfully built butcher who was Liu Bang’s brother-in-law, to find Liu Bang. After Butcher Fan’s departure, the magistrate had a change of heart. Fearing retribution from the authorities, he locked the city gates, posted soldiers on the city walls, and decided to execute his fellow plotters.
Liu Bang returned to the city of Pei with his brother-in-law and other followers, but they were denied entry. He therefore wrote a message on a piece of silk, tied it to an arrow, and shot it over the wall. Addressing the city elders, many of whom he knew personally, he urged them to lead the city’s people into rebellion against the Second Emperor, execute the magistrate, and make common cause with former nobles such as Xiang Liang and Xiang Yu. “Otherwise,” he warned, “you run the risk of being slaughtered yourselves when noble rebels like the Xiang family take over the city. Do not allow this to happen!”
The elders took his advice and killed the magistrate. They opened the gates, admitted Liu Bang, and nominated him Lord of Pei.
But Liu Bang demurred and said, “At present, All Under Heaven is in disorder. The former nobles from the six conquered states have risen in arms. Should you select someone who is not capable, you will be yi bai tu di, ‘smeared to the ground after a single defeat’! This matter is of vital import. Instead of choosing me, perhaps you should select a more capable man.”
However, many feared retaliation from the Second Emperor and refused to be considered. After due deliberation, everyone was still in favor of Liu Bang. Although he refused several more times, no one else was willing to step forward. Thus a common man from peasant stock assumed leadership by popular vote in 209 B.C.E. and became Lord of Pei at the age of forty-eight.
When the deaths of the two foremost revolutionaries of the day, Chen She and Wu Guang, became known throughout China, the warriors Xiang Liang and his nephew Xiang Yu called a meeting of the various insurgent leaders. The Xiangs wished to formulate a comprehensive strategy to defeat the mighty Qin army, which had been placed under the capable command of the former privy treasurer Zhang Han.
By that time the Qin empire was crumbling. Nobles, scholar-officials, and generals from the old ruling families of the six former states were variously establishing themselves as local warlords or kings, each with his own army. Although the First Emperor had abolished all noble titles in 221 B.C.E., the old aristocracies remained behind the scenes, still retaining much of their prestige. The Xiangs themselves owed their early success to their family’s reputation, which brought them many recruits.
A Confucian scholar and strategist named Fan Zeng (Old Man Fan), who was then in his seventies, came forward and said to the Xiangs, “Although Chen She was called the Father of the Revolution, he was bound to fail. Instead of naming the legitimate heir of the previous ruling family as King of Chu, he named himself. Ever since the last King of Chu was taken into captivity by Qin’s First Emperor, the people of Chu have mourned him. It has been said, Chu sui san hu, wang Qin bi Chu, ‘even if there are but three families left in Chu, the Qin empire will be toppled by someone from Chu.’ The reason for the various generals placing themselves under your command is precisely because of your family’s traditional loyalty toward the House of Chu. To earn the respect of All Under Heaven, I think it imperative that you place the rightful Chu heir back on the throne and serve under him.”
The proverb Chu sui san hu, wang Qin bi Chu, “even if there are but three families left in Chu, the Qin empire will be toppled by someone from Chu,” was frequently quoted in newspapers as a rallying cry during the Japanese occupation of China, 1937–1945. When I was a little girl in Shanghai, our history teacher told us the story of Old Man Fan and made us copy the proverb twenty times in our exercise book, telling us that there were many implications to the proverb.
During the Vietnam War, Ho Chi Minh asked for military aid from the People’s Republic of China. In one of the discussions between the two parties, Ho Chi Minh, who was well versed in the Chinese language, was said to have quoted the proverb and greatly impressed the Chinese. Subsequently, China did supply aid to Vietnam.
The Xiangs agreed. Following an extensive search, they succeeded in finding a scion from the ancient House of Chu. The grandson of the last King of Chu had become a shepherd after unification and was herding sheep for a living. The Xiangs placed him on the throne as King of Chu and titular head of all the revolutionary forces, thus legitimizing their uprising. More and more rebels joined them, including the army of Liu Bang, Lord of Pei.
Fourth Uncle Xiang Liang placed the main army under his own command and attacked the major Qin forces under the direction of Treasurer Zhang Han. Initially, Xiang’s revolutionary army inflicted a series of defeats on the Qin army. Flushed with victory and holding the enemy in contempt, Fourth Uncle dispatched his nephew Xiang Yu with a division of soldiers to assist Liu Bang in recapturing the city of Feng. Meanwhile, the Second Emperor sent fresh troops and reinforcements to Treasurer Zhang.
The momentum suddenly changed. Replenished with troops and supplies, Zhang now succeeded in completely surrounding the revolutionary army. With Xiang Yu and Liu Bang away in Feng, Fourth Uncle was caught shorthanded and unprepared. Despite a valiant effort, his army suffered a resounding defeat and Fourth Uncle himself was killed on the battlefield in October 208 B.C.E.
Hearing the devastating news, Xiang Yu and Liu Bang withdrew to the Chu city of Pengcheng to mourn the death of their commander and plan their next move. Fourth Uncle’s loss was a tremendous blow, and they were both deeply depressed. To boost their morale, the recently enthroned King of Chu made a covenant with the two men. He promised that the one who would first enter and capture the capital city of Xianyang would be named king of the Land Within the Passes. This area, known nowadays as Shaanxi Province, is surrounded by mountains and the Yellow River. Within this natural fortress was the rich and fertile Wei River Valley as well as the great city of Xianyang.
Having inflicted this major defeat on the Chu army and killed their supreme commander, Treasurer Zhang Han decided to focus his attention elsewhere because rebellion had flared up throughout the whole of China. He led his force of 300,000 men north into present-day Hebei Province against the King of Zhao, who had recently declared independence and joined the rebellion. After routing the Zhao army and forcing the King of Zhao into withdrawing to the city of Julu, Zhang ordered his assistant, Deputy General Wang Li, to surround and besiege the city. This was the same Wang Li who witnessed Prince Fu Su’s suicide and was second in command to Meng Tian at the Great Wall two years earlier.
The besieged King of Zhao sent emissaries far and wide to the other states requesting rescue. The King of Chu decided to divide the Chu army into two divisions, a minor and a major. Liu Bang was sent west with the minor division of 3000 men to take the capital city of Xianyang, whereas Xiang Yu was sent north across the Yellow River with the major division to relieve the siege of Julu and fight the main Qin army.
Xiang Yu had initially requested to head the Western Expedition in place of Liu Bang, but the older Chu ministers advised the King of Chu against him. They said, “Xiang Yu is young, hot tempered, impetuous, and ruthless. He destroys and kills wherever he goes. Let us instead send someone who is older, wiser, and known for his generosity and kindness. Whoever takes Xianyang will have to deal with the thorny issue of Zhao Gao and the Second Emperor. It is better to conquer by winning the hearts and minds of the people than by the sword.”
The King of Chu, therefore, flattered Xiang Yu by telling him that he was the only warrior capable of challenging the might of the main Qin army under Zhang Han. Eager to avenge the death of his beloved Fourth Uncle, Xiang Yu finally agreed to serve as second in command under Commandant Song Yi, who was named head of the Northern Expedition.
When the troops arrived at the bank of the Yellow River, Commandant Song halted the advance and adopted a wait-and-see attitude. Chafing at the delay, Xiang Yu repeatedly urged Commandant Song to launch an attack, but his requests were ignored. Finally, after forty-five days, he confronted Commandant Song and criticized him to his face for cowardice.
But Commandant Song replied, “I have my reasons for waiting. Yu bang xiang zheng, yu wung de li, ‘while the snipe and mussel were fighting each other, the fisherman captured them both.’ You may be braver at physical combat, but I am definitely the wiser at military strategy.” He then pointedly gave the order that those insubordinate officers who were fierce as tigers, greedy as wolves, stubborn as goats, and disobedient to orders from their superiors be immediately beheaded. This threat was obviously directed at Xiang Yu.
It was the eleventh month of the year 208 B.C.E. Winter arrived with a vengeance, and the weather suddenly turned frosty with an icy rain. The soldiers were cold and hungry. Meanwhile, General Song gave a big dinner party to celebrate his son’s appointment as prime minister of the state of Qi (present-day Shandong Province).
There was general discontent among the troops, and morale was low. Seizing this opportunity, Xiang Yu said to the officers, “Commandant Song is wining and dining his son while our soldiers get only taro and beans to feed their hunger. There is very little food left. Our men are freezing. Their padded winter uniforms have not yet arrived since no one anticipated this delay. Why is Commandant Song waiting and not leading our men across the river to take on the enemy? He claims that the Qin army will be worn out by the prolonged siege. In actuality, Qin is so strong that it will be even more powerful after swallowing Zhao. What weakness is he talking about? Meanwhile, our own King of Chu is so nervous that he is zuo bu an xi, ‘hardly able to sit with ease on his mat.’ His Majesty has entrusted his best troops to us, but Commandant Song is more concerned with e
ntertaining his son than with fighting the war. His actions are not those of a great leader. Cheng bai zai ci yi ju, ‘my next move will determine success or failure of our entire enterprise.’ The safety or collapse of Chu depends on it.”
Early next morning, Xiang Yu requested a private interview. Face-to-face with Commandant Song in his tent, Xiang Yu calmly unsheathed his sword and cut off Song’s head. He then declared to the army, “Commandant Song was planning to rebel against Chu, and His Majesty the King of Chu ordered me to execute him.”
The officers concurred that Xiang Yu should be the acting commander in chief. After capturing and executing Commandant Song’s son for good measure, Xiang Yu sent news of his deeds to the King of Chu. The latter had no choice but to confirm Xiang Yu’s appointment as commander in chief of all the allied armies that had joined together to topple the Qin Empire.
Now Xiang Yu concentrated his attention on the relief of the city of Julu. First he ordered that the army should take along only three days’ food rations. He knew that this was a defining moment and a case of do or die. In order to avenge the death of Fourth Uncle, he was prepared to sacrifice his own life. After crossing the river, he po fu chen zhou, “destroyed the cooking cauldrons and sank the boats.” He notified his men that they were at a point of no return. It was a case of victory or starvation. To emphasize his determination, he burned the tents and camping equipment as well, demonstrating once and for all that there was absolutely no possibility of turning back.