Jyaishtha: the second month of the Bengali calendar and the second summer month, mid-May to mid-June.
kadamba: a tree bearing strongly scented yellow-orange ball-shaped flowers which are really composed of numerous small florets ‘united by their confluent calyx tubes’ (Basu & Dutta, p. 30). The tree flowers in the rainy season. The fruit is edible. Its current botanical name was given to me as Anthocephalus chinensis, (Lamk.) A. Rich. ex Walp., Rubiaceae, but the curious are likely to encounter it under a variety of other names, such as Anthocephalus indicus, A. Rich., Rubiaceae, Anthocephalus cadamba, Miq., Rubiaceae (as in Basu & Dutta, from where I have just quoted), or even Nauclea cadamba (Monier-Williams).
Kailas: a mountain to the north of the Himalayan range, in Tibet, to the north of Lake Manas. It is the dwelling-place of the god Kubera and also one of the favourite residences of the great god Shiva.
kajari chants: a genre of folk songs associated with the rainy season.
kanchon: the Bauhinia purpurea, L., Caesalpiniaceae, an almost evergreen tree with large fragrant purple flowers, or the Bauhinia variegata, L., of the same family, which is deciduous, bearing white, red, or purple flowers. I was also given the name Bauhinia acuminata, L., of the same family.
kantalichampa: a small scandent shrub with dark green leaves and very fragrant flowers of a pale yellow or pale green colour. Its current Latin name was given to me as Artabotrys hexapetalus, (L.f.) Bhandari, Anonaceae. In earlier sources it is called Artabotrys odoratissimus.
kantha: a hand-sewn wrap made from old clothes. Re-cycling old cotton pieces by layering them and sewing them into wraps used to be one of the traditional domestic crafts of Bengal, and much ingenuity of women’s needlework was lavished on them. The kantha is humble but can be pretty. It is not necessarily an image of poverty. In ‘The Old House’ it is its patched state that indicates the wearer’s indigence.
Kartik: the seventh month of the Bengali calendar and the first autumn month, mid-October to mid-November.
ketaki: a shrub belonging to the screwpine family, with very spiny long leaves and strongly scented flowers of elongated shape (like heads of sweetcorn) that blossom in the rainy season. In legend it appears to have been a flower that was cursed by Shiva (S. Bhattacharya, Chiranjib Banowshadhi (Ananda Publishers, Calcutta), vol. 5). Its powerful aroma is known to have a drugging effect on snakes, which like coiling round it, and its essential oil is used in Indian perfumery and confectionery. In most old sources its botanical name is given as Pandanus odoratissimus, but I was told that it could be identified with Pandanus foetidus, Roxb., Pandanaceae. To the sensitive noses of botanical taxonomists odoratissimus may verge on foetidus, but on behalf of a flower celebrated for its fragrance in Indian poetry, and on behalf of those who, like myself, are named after it, I would like to register my protest against this new name! Bhattacharya, whom I have just cited, gives its new name as Pandanus tectorius, which does not sound so bad!
Khoka: meaning ‘little boy’, is also a common pet name for a boy. In ‘Hide-and-Seek’ it is clearly a name in the first stanza, but in the second and third stanzas it could be translated either way, especially as there is no capitalisation in the Bengali alphabet to stamp a word indisputably as a proper name.
kochu greens: Colocasia esculenta, (L.) Schott., Araceae, probably the same as Alocasia indica, Schott., Araceae, delicious as a vegetable. Although it is called ‘greens’ in an honorific sense, it is really the esculent stems, not the large leaves, that are cooked and eaten, just as one does with rhubarb.
koel: Bengali kokil, koyel, belongs to the cuckoo family and is one of the most indefatigable singers of the Indian spring. Its high-pitched, insistent song, increasing in intensity as it goes on, is very different from that of the cuckoo which comes to Britain in the spring.
kolmi: a variety of edible greens that grow near water, Ipomoea aquatica, Forsk., Convolvulaceae, the same as Ipomoea reptans, Poir., of the same family, delicious when cooked as a vegetable.
Kopai: the name of a small river of Birbhum district, West Bengal, which flows near Santiniketan.
koromcha: the Carissa carandas, L., Apocynaceae, bearing fruit which look somewhat like cherries and are pleasantly tartish in taste.
kunda: a scandent shrub of the jasmine family, with white fragrant flowers in dense cymes, Jasminum multiflorum, (Burm.f.) Andr., Oleaceae, the same as Jasminum pubescens, Willd., Oleaceae.
kurchi: the Holarrhena antidysenterica, Wall., Apocynaceae, a deciduous tree bearing creamy white flowers ‘in many-flowered corymbose cymes’ (Basu & Dutta, p. 39). Its bark has been used in the treatment of dysentery.
kurubak: the reference in ‘Dream’ (Kalpana) is taken by Tagore straight from Kalidasa, but it is not so easy to establish the exact identity of this flower in Kalidasa. According to the Sanskrit-English Dictionary of Monier-Williams, it could be either a red amaranth or a red variety of Barleria cristata, L., Acanthaceae.
kush-grass: a variety of grass used in religious rituals and famous for its sharp points. The Latin name given to me is Desmostachya bipinnata, Stapf, Poaceae. Monier-Williams identifies it with Poa cynosuroides.
Lakshmi: the goddess of grace, beauty, luck, and prosperity, the consort of Vishnu who is the second deity of the Hindu trinity and one of the most powerful gods of Hinduism.
lemon-grass: a fragrant tropical grass yielding an aromatic oil, the Cymbopogon nardus, (L.) Rendle, Poaceae. Stalks of this grass are used in the cookery of S.E. Asia.
lime flowers: the fragrant flowers of the Citrus medica, L., Rutaceae.
lodhra: the Symplocos racemosa, Roxb., Symplocaceae. Flowers in the winter. The fine pollen of the fragrant white flowers was used by women as a powder for the face.
lotus: the Indian lotus, Nelumbo nucifera, Gaertn., Nymphaeaceae, is unlikely to be the same as the plant the fruit of which, according to Homer, induced a state of dreamy torpor and which is celebrated in Tennyson’s poem ‘The Lotos-eaters’. The Indian lotus belongs to the same family as the humble water-lily, but as a many-petalled thing of beauty emerging from water or slime, it occupies a special place of honour and has a tremendous symbolic significance to the Indian mind. It is a powerful symbol in both Hinduism and Buddhism. See the note on the poem ‘True Meditation’ (Chaitali) in the Notes section.
madar: properly palte madar in Bengali, the Erythrina variegata, L., Fabaceae, also called Erythrina indica in older sources, a deciduous tree which, in the flowering season, sports dense erect spikes of bright scarlet flowers at the tip of leafless branches.
madhabi: a climber with sweet-scented flowers in abundant racemes. The Latin name most commonly given for it is Hiptage madablota, Gaertn., Malpighiaceae, but I was given the name Hiptage benghalensis.
Magh: the tenth month of the Bengali calendar and the second winter month, mid-January to mid-February.
magpie robin: Bengali doyel, famous for its sweet song in the breeding season.
Mahabharat: the great Sanskrit epic, the Mahabharata, supposed to be the longest poem in the world. In ‘Hide-and-Seek’ it would be a Bengali version, most probably Kashidas’s, which the little boy’s mother would be reading, which is why I have spelt the name without the final a, in keeping with Bengali pronunciation.
mahaneem: an evergreen shady tree belonging to the same family as the neem, with sweet-scented lilac flowers. Bunches of fruit remain on the tree for a long time. The Latin name given to me is Melia azadirachta, A. Juss., Meliaceae. I have also seen it called Melia azedarach.
Mahashweta: a character in the Sanskrit work of prose fiction, Kadambari; see the note on the poem ‘The Victorious Woman’ in the Notes section. To appreciate the statement in ‘Tamarind Flowers’ that the kurchi branch, in its ‘prayerful striving for flowers…has become a Mahashweta’, remember that the flowers of the kurchi (q.v.) are creamy white, that the name ‘Maha-shweta’ means ‘the very white one’ (fem. gender), and that Mahashweta became an ascetic while waiting to be re-united with her beloved.
mahua: a deciduous tree with sweet-smelling cream-coloured flowers and edible fruit, the Madhuca latifolia, (Koen.) Mac., Sapotaceae, or Madhuca indica, Gmel., Sapotaceae, or Bassia latifolia, Roxb., Sapotaceae (all three names refer to the same tree). Mahua wine is a favourite drink of Santhals and other tribal people. One also hears local stories of bears getting intoxicated after eating the fruit, which is a favourite food of many wild creatures. One of Tagore’s collections of love-poems, from which two poems have been translated in this book, is named after this tree/flower. A valuable oil is expressed from the seeds.
malati: a climbing shrub with fragrant white flowers, Aganosma dichotoma, (Roth.) K. Schum., Apocynaceae, identical with Aganosma caryophyllata, G. Don, Apocynaceae.
Malavika: the name of the heroine of Kalidasa’s play Malavikagnimitra, hence used by Tagore to evoke the image of a charming and sophisticated woman of Kalidasa’s time.
Mallar: a generic name in Indian classical music for a group of ragas pertaining to the rainy season. In ‘One Day’ Tagore is probably referring specifically to Raga Megha-mallar.
Mandakini: the river Ganges in its mythological aspect, when it flows through the heavenly world.
mandar: often identified with the palte madar with its brilliant scarlet blossoms (see madar above), but in the poem ‘Farewell to Heaven’ the reference is clearly to the mythological mandar, which is a celestial tree growing in the pleasure-garden of the gods. By the logic of its very being such a tree and its flowers cannot be found on this earth.
mango: mangoes, usually flown from Kenya, are now not uncommon in British supermarkets, but this king of Indian fruits deserves a note. The word mango is ultimately from Tamil. The common Bengali word is aam, from Skr. amra. The tree, the Mangifera indica, L., Anacardiaceae, is an evergreen with a dense rounded crown of dark-green leathery leaves. The strong, heady scent of its flowers is one of the characteristic odours of the Indian spring and is often referred to in Tagore’s poetry and songs. The fruit, when ripe, has a large stone in the centre, and is sweet, fleshy, and juicy, the nearest European equivalent in taste being a really ripe peach. The green fruit is used in pickles, chutneys, and other condiments. Numerous varieties of the mango are cultivated in India. Some of the best reach the West in canned form. The cashew-nut tree belongs to the same family as the mango.
Manu’s codes: The lawbook attributed to Manu was probably put together in its final form in the 2nd or 3rd century A.D. (A.L. Basham, The Wonder that was India, 3rd revised edition (Sidgwick & Jackson, London, 1969), p. 113). It codified Hindu orthodoxy.
masha: a unit of weight used by jewellers. It can also refer to a unit of weight used by apothecaries, in which case it is smaller.
maya: an important philosophical concept; see the note on the poem ‘On the Doctrine of Maya’ (Sonar Tari) in the Notes section.
Mayurakshi: a river that rises from the Rajmahal Hills of Bihar, flows through the Santhal Parganas district and into West Bengal. Pronounced Moyurakkhi in Bengali, the name means ‘peacock-eyed’, in the feminine gender. Hence in the poem ‘Dwelling’ the name itself is magical, evoking a world of beauty and romance.
Menaka: a celestial nymph and dancer at Indra’s court.
muchukunda: an evergreen tree bearing yellowish white sweet-scented flowers, the Pterospermum acerifolium, Willd., Sterculiaceae, identical with Pterospermum suberifolium, Lam., of the same family.
myrobalan: Bengali horitoki, a large deciduous tree, the Terminalia chebula, Retz., Combretaceae, the astringent fruit of which is used medicinally.
Nandan: the heavenly garden of Indra, pleasing in all seasons.
neem: the Azadirachta indica, A. Juss., Meliaceae, a beautiful, virtually evergreen tree with sweet-smelling white flowers which is much valued in the Indian pharmacopoeia for the antiseptic properties of its products. Its twigs are used to brush the teeth; its bitter-tasting leaves are cooked and eaten, and are also used as insect-repellents; its essential oil is used in the manufacture of soap and toothpaste. Birds and bees love the honey of the flowers, and birds also love the small yellow fruits, which tend to fall off soon after ripening.
nut tree: In poem no. 5 of Patraput and ‘The Dark Girl’ of Akashpradip this is likely to be the Terminalia catappa, L., Combretaceae, a tall handsome spreading tree with horizontal, whorled branches. Its leaves turn coppery red before falling. The kernels of the fruit are edible.
oleander: the Bengali karabi, a poisonous shrub with whippy branches and fragrant white or reddish flowers, Nerium indicum, Mill., Apocynaceae, identical with Nerium odorum, Sol., of the same family. The red variety received its apotheosis as a symbol in Tagore’s play Raktakarabi. Not to be confused with what is sometimes called the yellow oleander, Bengali kolke-phul, the Thevetia peruviana or Thevetia nereifolia of the same family, bearing yellow flowers.
Padma: the name given to the main branch of the Ganga in eastern Bengal, now Bangladesh.
palmyra: the same as fan palm (q.v.).
parijat: like mandar, often identified with the Erythrina variegata, L., Fabaceae, but in Song No. 36 it is without a doubt a celestial flower of mythology which cannot be found on this earth. Any association with the scarlet flower of the Erythrina variegata must really be ruled out here, because Tagore is making parijat pollen serve as a metaphor for moonlight. As in the previous stanza, where sandalwood paste serves the same purpose, Tagore wants to evoke a pale golden colour.
passiflora: Bengali jhumka-lata or jhumko-lata, a flowering shrub climbing by tendrils. The Latin name I was given for it is Passiflora incarnata, L., Passifloraceae.
peepul: the Ficus religiosa, L., Moraceae. Resembles some species of the poplar, especially the aspen, like which its leaves quiver constantly in the breeze. The shade of this tree is most attractive in the hot season. Its seeds, blown by the wind or dropped by birds in the cracks of brickwork or masonry, can be very destructive to buildings. The Buddha is said to have attained his enlightenment under one of these trees. The word peepul came to English from Hindi and is ultimately from Sanskrit. The word pippal does exist in the Bengali word-stock, but Bengali usually prefers another name for the tree, ashwattha or ashath, also of Sanskrit origin.
Phagun/Phalgun: the eleventh month of the Bengali calendar and the first spring month, mid-February to mid-March.
polash: the Butea monosperma, Kuntze, Fabaceae, earlier known as the Butea frondosa, Roxb., Papilionaceae, a deciduous tree which is a treat for the eye in springtime, bearing on its leafless branches a profusion of shapely flame-coloured or yellow flowers set off by velvety dark-green calyces. Many polash trees grow in and around Santiniketan, and the flower, used as an adornment by Santhal women and much used in the Santiniketan spring festival, was one of Tagore’s favourite flowers. The tree yields a red resin and is an important host of the lac insect, the source of a valuable red dye. The flowers yield a dye too.
pomegranate blossoms: the fruit of the Punica granatum, L., Punicaceae, will be more familiar to most readers than the red blossoms which are lovely.
Poush: the ninth month of the Bengali calendar and the first winter month, mid-December to mid-January.
Puja: any ceremony of religious worship, but if otherwise unqualified, in Bengal referring to the festival of Durga, the Mother Goddess, which takes place in the month of Ashwin and lasts several days.
Radhika: the same as Radha, the beloved of Krishna, an incarnation of the god Vishnu. Those who have seen examples of Indian miniature painting should be familiar with representations of Radha and Krishna. The story of their love is a common ingredient in many Indian art-forms, including medieval Bengali poetry. It would feature in the traditional open-air plays of Bengal known as jatras, in which female parts were taken by boys, as in the Elizabethan theatre.
Rajbangshi: the name of a rural community of tribal origin in northern Bengal.
rattan: the Calamus rotang, L., Arecaceae, the pliable stems of which are used for making baskets, trays etc.
red sandal: the red heartwood of the Adenanthera pavonina, L., Mimosaceae, called raktachandan (i.e. red sandal) in Bengali, yields a red dye, but the true raktachandan or red sandal/sanders comes from the wood of the Pterocarpus santalinus, L., Leguminosae, which grows in South India.
rongon: the white variety of this dense shrub is the Ixora arborea, Roxb. ex Sm., Rubiaceae; there is also the Ixora coccinea, L., Rubiaceae, a variety which bears brilliant scarlet or yellow blossoms and is much liked by gardeners.
Rupnarayan: see the note on poem no. 11 of Shesh Lekha in the Notes section.
sal: pronounced shaal in Bengali, the Shorea robusta, Gaertn., Dipterocarpaceae, a large tree valued for its timber and resin. Its leaves are used to make disposable plates and conical containers for outdoor eating.
sandal: the fragrant wood of the Santalum album, L., Santalaceae, is rubbed with a little water against a mortar to make a paste, which is applied to the skin to aromatise, cool, and decorate it. The wood is highly prized for the manufacture of objets d’art and the essential oil is used in perfumes and soaps. The word sandal is really the same as Bengali chandan and came to English from Sanskrit via medieval Latin.
san-hemp: the Crotalaria juncea, L., Fabaceae, cultivated for its valuable fibre. Its yellow flowers make a pretty sight.
Santhal: the name of an important tribal people of India whose largest concentration is to be found in the states of Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand and Orissa. They used to give their name to an entire district of Bihar and they are also numerous in the Birbhum district of West Bengal, where Santiniketan is situated. They are noted for their songs and dances, their various home-made brews, a marked aesthetic sense, and a festive spirit.
Santhal Parganas: a district named after the Santhals (see the entry above), which used to be a part of Bihar, but is currently a part of the new state of Jharkhand, which has been carved out of the southern part of Bihar.
saptaparna: also known in Bengali as chhatim, a large evergreen tree, the Alstonia scholaris, (L.) R. Br., Apocynaceae, with distinctive leaves in whorls and strongly scented greenish white flowers in many-flowered cymes. The name saptaparna implies that the leaves are in whorls of 7, but the number can vary. The pollen of the flowers can cause hay-fever and other allergies in those who are susceptible to such problems. People at Santiniketan have a special affection for this tree, as it played a role in the foundation of the place as a Tagore family country-house. The story is that Tagore’s father, on his way to a friend’s country estate, got off the train at Bolpur and proceeded in a palanquin till he came to an open plain, where he sat down under a pair of chhatim trees for his evening meditation. He was so delighted with the spot that soon thereafter he bought the land, built a house, and laid out a garden, naming the place Santiniketan (see Kripalani, op. cit. in the Notes section, p. 48). It was here that Tagore later founded a school and, later still, a university. A leaf of this tree is given to each graduate at the convocation of the university.