There exist now UFO research groups in various countries of Europe and America, mostly run by astronomers and other scientists as a hobby. The USA Center for UFO Studies has a computer file of some 80,000 catalogued and classified reports. This centre was created and is directed by Dr J. Allen Hynek, Chairman of the Department of Astronomy, North-Western University, formerly Associate Director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and Astronomical Consultant of the US Air Force on 'Project Blue Book' of reported UFO sightings.
Why then in view of all this, is ufology still in disrepute? Part of the answer is provided by an amusing historical analogy. The extract which follows is from Principles of Meteoritics by E. L. Krinov:
During the period of vigorous scientific development which took place during the eighteenth century, scientists came to the conclusion that the falling of meteorites upon the Earth is impossible; all reports of such cases were declared to be absurd fiction. Thus, for example . . . the Swiss mineralogist J. A. Deluc stated that 'if he saw a fall of a meteorite himself, he would not believe his own eyes'. But especially astonishing is the fact that even the well-known chemist Lavoisier signed a memorandum in 1772 with scientists of the Paris Academy of Sciences, which concluded . . . that 'the falling of stones from the sky is physically impossible'. Finally, when the meteorite Barbotan fell in France in 1790 and the fall was witnessed by the mayor and the city council. the French scientist Berthollet wrote: 'How sad it is that the entire municipality enters folk tales upon an official record, presenting them as something actually seen, while they cannot be explained by physics nor by anything reasonable.' [6]
If you think of it, for eighteenth-century minds meteors were no easier to swallow than UFOs for us. Hence the same choking and spluttering reaction. This was particularly in evidence in the course of the so-called 'Condon Report'. scandal, which grew into a kind of academic Watergate. One of the best résumés of this complicated affair -- which led to the shelving of the US Air Force 'Project Blue Book' and to the official taboo on UFOs -- was written by Charles H. Gibbs-Smith, the eminent aviation historian. Here is an abbreviated version of his account (italics in the original): [7]
For the purposes of this article, I am not concerned whether UFOs are vehicles from outer space, hamburgers tossed from balloons, or spots in front of the eyes of neurotic tabby cats. I am concerned with the status and standing of a scientific report, the 'Condon Report of the Scientific Study of Unidentified Flying Objects', completed in 1968, and released to the Press in January 1969. On August 9, 1966, a confidential memorandum was written by a Mr Robert J. Low to officials of the University of Colorado, concerning the proposed contract between this University and the US Air Force, for the former to conduct research into UFOs, and be paid for this project out of public funds to the tune of some half a million dollars. The project was to be under the direction of Dr Edward U. Condon, with Mr Low (a member of the University staff) as the project co-ordinator and 'key operations man'. The memorandum in question was written before the contract was signed between the University and the Air Force. The Low memorandum was entitled 'Some Thoughts on the UFO Project', and included the following passages (my italics): '. . . Our study would be conducted almost exclusively by non-believers who, though they couldn't possibly prove a negative result, could and probably would add an impressive body of evidence that there is no reality to the observations. The trick would be, I think, to describe the project so that, to the public, it would appear a totally objective study, but, to the scientific community, would present the image of a group of non-believers trying their best to be objective, but having an almost zero expectation of finding a saucer. One way to do this would be to stress investigation, not of the physical phenomena, but rather of the people who do the observing -- psychology and sociology of persons and groups who report seeing UFOs. If the emphasis were put here, rather than on examination of the old question of the physical reality of the saucer, I think the scientific community would quickly get the message. . . . I'm inclined to feel at this early stage that, if we set up the thing right and take pains to get the proper people involved and have success in presenting the image we want to present to the scientific community, we could carry the job off to our benefit . . .' This memorandum was accidentally discovered by a researcher late in 1967, and was revealed to the public in Look magazine in May of 1968 . . . The Low memorandum can only be viewed as a deliberate act calculated to deceive; to deceive first the scientific community, and, through them, the public at large. I know of no modern parallel to such a cynical act of duplicity on the part of a university official . . . By the writing of such a document, the integrity of the entire project was shattered in advance. Mr Low's words disclose that everything in the report -- unbeknown to the reader, be he scientist or layman -- could ultimately play its part in presenting the angled case whereby the 'scientific community would quickly get the message'. This, in plain language, means that a deliberate perversion of the truth was planned before the contract with the Air Force was signed; which, in turn, points to an agreement with someone, or some body, as to what that 'message' should be. Thus the spirit of perversion must inevitably have pervaded the whole fabric of the report; conditioned what was included, and what was excluded; what was played up, and what was played down; what was said in a particular manner, and what was not said; what was implied, and what was not implied . . . The Low memorandum also conveys an implied contempt for the subject of the UFOs which the University was being handsomely paid to investigate . . . What underlines the dishonesty which surrounds the whole project is the fact that at no time has the Low memorandum been repudiated, or even deplored, by any of the parties to the deal. Neither the University of Colorado nor the Air Force has had a word of explanation to offer for behaviour which cuts at the very roots of scientific integrity.
The explanation of the conspiracy -- there seems to be no other word to describe it -- is not difficult to guess. Some of the scientists on the committee had a genuine horror of getting involved with 'little green men from Venus' and refused to make a distinction between serious UFO research and the tales of crackpots and hoaxers. There are plenty of precedents for such an attitude in the history of science; long before the denial of meteors, some of Galileo's fellow-astronomers denied the existence of Jupiter's moons which he had discovered, and refused even to look through his telescope because they felt sure that those moons were an optical illusion.*
* See The Sleepwalkers, Ch. VIII, 6.
As for the Air Force and other official agencies, they well remembered the mass-hysteria and panic released by Orson Welles's 1938 broadcast about a Martian invasion, and were anxious to prevent a repetition. Moreover, Government agencies do not like to admit that there are things going on in the nation's sky which they are unable to explain. The upshot of it all was that in December 1969, the US Secretary for Air officially announced that further research 'cannot be justified on the ground of national security or in the interest of science', and closed 'Project Blue Book' down.
In contrast to the American attitude, French Government agencies frankly admitted that they took a lively interest in UFOs, encouraged the population to report sightings to the nearest gendarmerie, and ordered the gendarmes to report their investigations through official channels. More than that: in a remarkable radio interview in 1975, the French Minister of Defence, Robert Galley, explained in some detail the methods used to collect evidence on UFOs, insisted repeatedly on the necessity 'to keep an open mind', and affirmed that in his opinion the phenomena in question were 'to date unexplained or badly explained'. He also came out in favour of a suggestion by Claude Poher, Head of Research of the National Agency for Space Research, to construct automated observation posts to establish correlations between variations of the earth's magnetic field and passing UFOs. And yet the French are supposed to be a nation of sceptics.
What are we to conclude? Open-minded scientists, when confronted with prima facie evidence for phenomena which they can
not explain, go on collecting data in the hope that an explanation will eventually be found. This hope may be spurious, a product of the rationalist illusion, but there is no alternative strategy in science -- except the ostrich's, who follows the maxim: 'What I cannot explain cannot exist.' Granted that even the best-documented UFO cases resemble a 'festival of absurdity', we must also realize that when we approach the borders of science, whether in ESP or quantum physics or ufology, we must expect to encounter phenomena which seem to us paradoxical or absurd. To quote once more Aimé Michel: [8]
It must never be forgotten that in any manifestation of a superhuman nature the apparently absurd is what one must expect. 'Why do you take so much trouble about your food and your house?' one of my cats asked me one day. 'What an absurd lot of upheaval, when everything can be found in the dust-bins, and there is good shelter under the cars.'
REFERENCES Prologue: The New Calendar (pages 1 to 20) 1. Time, New York, 29 January 1965. 2. Vaihinger (1911). 3. von Bertalanffy (1956). 4. MacLean (1962). 5. MacLean (1973). 6. MacLean (1958). 7. Gaskell (1908), pp. 65-7. 8. Wood Jones and Porteus (1929), pp. 27-8. 9. Lorenz (1966). 10. Russell (1950), p. 141. PART ONE: OUTLINE OF A SYSTEM Chapter I: The Holarchy (pages 23 to 56) 1. Frankl (1969), pp. 397-8. 2. Morris (1967). 3. Quoted by Frankl (1969). 4. Smuts (1926). 5. Pattee (1970). 6. Weiss (1969), p. 193. 7. Needham, J. (1936). 8. Needham, J. (1945). 9. Koestler (1964, 1967). 10. Koestler (1967). 11. Jevons (1972), p. 64. 12. Ruyer (1974). 13. Gerard (1957). 14. Gerard (1969), p. 228. 15. Thorpe (1974), p. 35. 16. Bonner (1965). p. 136. 17. Waddington (1957). 18. de St Hiiaire(1818). 19. Simon (1962). 20. Miller (1964). 21. Koestler(1969a). 22. Jaensch (1930). 23. Kluever (1933). 24. Penfield and Roberts (1959). 25. Frankl (1969). Chapter II: Beyond Eros and Thanatos (pages 57 to 69) 1. Freud (1920), p. 63. 2. ibid., pp. 3-5. 3. Jones (1953), Vol. I, p. 142. 4. Horney (1939). 5. Pearl in Enc. Brit., 14th ed. 6. ibid. 7. Thomas (1974), p. 28. 8. ibid. 9. ibid., pp. 28-30. Chapter IV: Ad Majorem Gloriam ... (pages 77 to 97). 1. Hayek (1966). 2. Milgram (1975), p. 18. 3. ibid. 4. Milgram (1974), p. 166. 5. ibid., p. 71. 6. ibid., p. 167. 7. ibid. 8. ibid., p. 131. 9. ibid., p. 132. 10. ibid. 11. ibid., p. 8. 12. ibid., p. 9. 13. ibid., p. 148. 14. Milgram (1975), p. 20. 15. Milgram (1974), p. 188. 16. Calder (1976), pp. 124-7. 17. Calder (1976). 18. Calder (1976a), p. 127. 19. Prescott (1964), p. 62. 20. The Times, London, 27 July 1966. Chapter V: An Alternative to Despair (pages 98 to 106) 1. Hyden (1961). 2. Koestler (1967). PART TWO: THE CREATIVE MIND Chapter VI: Humour and Wit (pages 109 to 130) 1. Koestler (1948, 1959, 1964 and 1967). 2. Koestler (1974). 3. de Boulogne (1862). 4. Foss (1961). 5. Freud (1940), Vol. VI. 6. Huxley, A. (1961). Chapter VIII: The Discoveries of Art (pages 137 to 161) 1. Jones (1957), Vol. 3, p. 364. 2. Pribram et al. (1960), p. 9. 3. Gellhorn (1957). 4. See Koestler (1964), Book I, Ch. V-XI. 5. Hadamard (1949). 6. Popper (1975). 7. ibid. 8. Koestler (1964, 1968, etc.). 9. Szent-Györgyi (1957). 10. Gombrich (1962), pp. 9, 120. PART THREE: CREATIVE EVOLUTION Chapter IX: Crumbling Citadels (pages 165 to 192) 1. Skinner (1953), pp. 30-1. 2. Jaynes (1976), p. xx. 3. Watson (1938), pp. 198 f. 4. Skinner (1953), p. 252. 5. ibid., pp. 108-9. 6. Skinner (1957), p. 163. 7. ibid., p. 438. 8. ibid., p. 439. 9. ibid., p. 150. 10. ibid., p. 206. 11. Koestler (1967), p. 12n. 12. Chomsky (1959). 13. cf., e.g., Macbeth (1971). 14. Huxley, J. (1957) quoted by Eisley (1961), p. 336. 15. Waddington (1957), pp. 64-5. 16. von Bertalanffy (1969), p. 67. 17. ibid. 18. Hardy (1965), p. 207. 19. von Bertalanffy (1969), p. 65. 20. Huxley, J. (1954), p. 14. 21. Waddington (1952). 22. Monod (1971), p. 121. 23. ibid., p. 122. 24. ibid. 25. ibid., p. 146. 26. Darwin, quoted by Macbeth (1971), p. 101. 27. Koestler (1967), pp. 128-9. 28. Grassé (1973). 29. Tinbergen (1951), p. 189. 30. ibid., p. 9. 31. Macbeth (1971), pp. 71-2. 32. von Bertalanffy (1969), p. 66. 33. Jenkin (1867). 34. Hardy (1965), p. 80. 35. Darwin, F., quoted by Hardy (1965), p. 81. 36. Bateson (1902). 37. Grassé (1973), p. 21. 38. ibid., p. 351. 39. ibid. 40. ibid. 41. Bateson, G., private communIcation, 2 July 1970. 42. Bateson, W (1913), p. 248. 43. Johannsen (1923), p. 140. 44. Butler (1951 ed.), p. 167, quoted by Himmelfarb (1959), p. 362. 46. Beadle (1963). 47. Grassé (1973), P. 369. 48. Simpson, Pittendrigh and Tiffany (1957), p. 330. 49. Grassé (1973). 50. Gorini (1966). 51. Koestler (1967), p. 133 -- based on de Beer (1940), p. 148, and Hardy (1965), p. 212. 52. Cannon (1958), p. 118. 53. Monod (1971), p. 9. 54. ibid., pp. 21-2. 55. Grassé (1973), p. 277. Chapter X: Lamarck Revisited (pages 193 to 204) 1. Kammerer in New York Evening Post, 23 February 1924. 2. Simpson (1950) quoted by Hardy (1965), p. 14. 3. Thomson (1908) quoted by Wood Jones (1943), p. 9. 4. Darlington in preface to reprint of On the Origin of Species (1950). 5. Spencer (1893), Vol. I, p. 621. 6. Haldane (1940), p. 39. 7. Huxley, J. (1954), p. 14. 8. McConnell (1965). 9. The Times, London, 26 June 1970. 10. Grassé (1973), p. 366. 11. ibid., p. 367. 12. Koestler (1971), p. 130. 13. Koestler (1967), pp. 158-9. 14. Waddington (1957), p. 182. 15. ibid. 16. Koestler and Smythies (1969), pp. 382 f. 17. Wood Jones (1943, p. 22. 18. Quoted by Smith (1975), pp. 162-3. Chapter XI: Strategies and Purpose in Evolution (page 205 to 226) 1. Simpson, Pittendrigh and Tiffany (1957), p. 472. 2. Simpson (1949), p. 180. 3. Spurway (1949). 4. Whyte (1965). 5. Waddington (1957), p. 79. 6. Hardy (1965), p. 211. 7. Koestler (1967), pp. 148-9. 8. Simpson (1950), quoted by Hardy (1965), p. 14. 9. Sinnott (1961), p. 45. 10. Muller (1943), quoted by Sinnott (1961), p. 45. 11. Coghill (1929). 12. Hardy (1965), p. 176. 13. ibid., pp. 172, 192-3. 14. Huxley,J. (1964), p. 13. 15. Hardy (1965), de Beer (1940), Takhtajan (1972) and Koltsov (1936). 16. Koestler (1967), pp. 163-4. 17. Young (1950), p. 74. 18. de Beer (1940), p. 118. 19. Quoted by Takhtajan (1972). 20. ibid. 21. Koestler (1967), p. 166. 22. Hamburger (1973). 23. Herrick (1961). 24. Schrödinger (1944), p. 72. 25. Szent-Györgyi (1974) 26. ibid. 27. Grassé (1973), p. 401. 28. Waddington (1961). PART FOUR: NEW HORIZONS Chapter XII: Free Will in a Hierarchic Context (pages 229 to 241) 1. Hardy (1965), p. 229. 2. Thorpe (1966a). 3. Heisenberg (1969). p. 113. 4. Pauli (1952), p. 164. 5. Popper (1950). 6. Polanyi (1966). 7. MacKay (1966). Chapter XIII: Physics and Metaphysics (pages 242 to 273) 1. New Scientist, 25 January 1973, p. 209. 2. Capra (1975), p. 52. 3. Newton, quoted by Capra (1975), p. 57. 4. Russell (1927), p. 163. 5. Capra (1975), p. 77. 6. Koestler (1972, 1973 and 1976). 7. Heisenberg quoted by Burt (1967), p. 80. 8. Heisenberg (1969), pp. 63-4. 9. Koestler (1972), p. 51. 10. Eccles (1953), pp. 276-7. 11. ibid., p. 279. 12. Firsoff (1967), pp. 102-3. 13. Dobbs (1967). 14. Walker (1973). 15. Heisenberg (1958), pp. 48-9. 16. Jeans (1937). 17. Hoyle (1966). 18. Wheeler quoted by Chase (1972). 19. Wheeler (1967), p. 246. 20. Margenau (1967), p. 218. 21. Bohm and Hiley (1974). 22. Margenau (1967), p. 218. 23. Jung (1960), p. 318. 24. ibid., p. 435. 25. ibid., p. 420. 26. Kammerer (1919), p. 93. 27. ibid., p. 165. 28. ibid., p. 456. 29. Quoted by Przibram (1926). 30. Koestler (1973), pp. 191-3. 31. Pauli (1952). 32. ibid., p. 164. 33. Jung (1960), p. 514. 34. Schopenhauer (1859). 35. della Mirandola (1557), p. 40. 36. Weaver (1963). 37. Bohm (1951). 38. Schrödinger (1944), p. 83. 39. Harvie (1973), p. 133. 40. Price quoted by Dobbs (1967), p. 239. 41. Dobbs (1967), p. 239. 42. Burt (1968), pp. 50, 58-9. 43. Grassé (1973), p. 401. Chapter XIV: A Glance through the Keyhole (pages 274 to 286) 1. Wallace quoted by Macbeth (1971), p. 103. 2. Quoted by Macbeth (1971), p. 103. 3. Herrick (1961), pp. 398-9. 4. Wallace quoted by Macbeth (1971), p. 103. 5. Koestler (1967), pp. 297 f. 6. Koestler (1959), p. 55 and (1964,), p. 342. 7. Butterfield (1924), p. 104. 8. Huxley, J. (1954), p. 12. 9. Margenau (1967), pp. 223-4. 10. Price (1949), pp. 105-13. 11. New Scientist, 21 April 1977. 12. ibid. 13. ibid 14. Koestler (1937 and 1954). APPENDICES Appendix I: Beyond Atomism and Holism -- The Concept of the Holon (pages 289 to 311) 1. von Bertalanffy (1952). 2. Koestler (1967). 3. Koestler and Smythies, eds. (1969). 4. Chomsky (1965). 5. Tinbergen (1951); Thorpe (1956). 6. Herrick (1981); Weiss, ed. (1950), etc. 7. Simon (1962). 8. Thompson (1942. 9. Koestler (1967). 10. von Bertalanffy (1952). 11. Waddington (1957). 12. ibid. 13. Tinbergen (1951). 14. Koestler and Jenkins (1965). 15. Penfield and Roberts (1969). 16. MacLean (1958). 17. Weiss in Jeffress, ed. (1951). 18. Hebb (1958
). 19. Bartlett (1958). 20. von Bertalanffy (1952). 21. Child (1925). 22. Miller et at. (1960). Appendix II: An Experiment in Perception (pages 312 to 316) 1. e.g. Sperling (1960); Averbach (1963); Broadbent (1963). 2. Osgood (1953). 3. Woodworth and Schlosberg (1954). 4. ibid., p. 697. Appendix III: Notes on the Autonomic Nervous System (pages 317 to 318) 1. Allport (1924). 2. Olds (1960). 3. Hebb (1949). 4. Pribram (1966). 5. Gellhorn (1963). 6. ibid. 7. Cobb (1950). 8. Pribram (1966), p. 9. 9. Gellhorn (1957). Appendix IV: UFOs: A Festival of Absurdity (pages 319 to 325) 1. Sagan (1973), pp. 366-7. 2. Michel (1974) 3. New Scientist, 31 March 1977. 4. International Herald Tribune, 22 April 1977. 5. Goddard (1975), pp. 106-7. 6. Krinov (1960), p. 9. 7. Gibbs-Smith (1970). 8. Michel (1974), p. 255.
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