It was a crisp, damp morning, a little chilly. A gentle breeze was blowing, bringing with it intimations of November, which mourns for the flower blossoms of lovers. The sky was full of bright clouds. Sometimes they were clustered together, but then they would break up and turn into frozen lakes that refracted the early morning rays of the sun from the horizon. The way their fringes sparkled in the sunlight was eye-catching.
Or this depiction from the very last scene in the novel as Ahmad looks out of his window for one last time:
It was the middle of the month of Shaaban, and the moon was gleaming brightly in the clear August sky. All around it stars were twinkling coyly as though to express their regret that the moon had again appeared in its youthful guise, something that they had always known would not last. The moonlight bathed the entire quarter in a shimmering silver glow that banished the lonely darkness of night and imbued street corners and alleyways with a particular magic.
Another feature of novel writing where Mahfouz’s developing technique appears in this novel is that of dialogue. While, in accordance with his views on language (that are certainly not shared by all writers of Arabic fiction), he writes his conversations in the standard written language (fusha), he is still successful in conveying both the context and mood of the occasion involved. This applies particularly to the conversations at the Zahra Café, of course, but it is equally in evidence in an entirely different situation, the love-chatter between Rushdi and Nawal (chapter 27).
Mahfouz’s narrator is, to use one of Bakhtin’s terms again, “monologic.” This more traditional aspect of the narrative craft comes to the fore frequently in Khan al-Khalili when the inner thoughts of characters need to be revealed: the often furious and agonized musings of Ahmad throughout the work, and Nawal’s bemused comparison of the two brothers (chapter 27). The same narrator is also not above providing the reader with some more generalized thoughts and opinions on the evils of gambling (chapter 18), the value of singing and singers (chapter 25)—a favorite topic of Mahfouz—and death (chapter 43). Here, above all, is one feature of narrative technique that Mahfouz was to develop and refine further, particularly in the novels of the 1960s.
It goes without saying that the ways in which Mahfouz makes use of all of these various narrative features have had an impact on, and are reflected in, the process of translating this novel into English. The “more traditional” aspects of Khan al-Khalili—the carefully organized and chronologically linear approach to time and the lovingly detailed descriptions of place (the apartment’s bomb shelter being merely one, more obvious, example)—are characteristic of phases in novelistic development that are, to quote E. M. Forster—a similarly “traditional” critical source—reflections of a narrative strategy that relies on “telling” rather than “showing.” Beyond that, the philosophical and ethical musings of Ahmad in the face of his own failures, his tortured affection toward Nawal, and above all the complex sentiments that result from his own deep and abiding love for his brother, Rushdi, these reflections and emotions are couched in often lengthy and aphoristic passages that clearly reflect an earlier phase in the development of the novel genre in general and of its Arabic context in particular. In noting that I have made no attempt either to eradicate or gloss over these features of Khan al-Khalili in this translation, I would suggest that there is great value in observing Naguib Mahfouz, generally acknowledged as being the foundation-layer of modern Arabic fiction, in the process of honing his fictional craft in this novel. In such a context, two points of comparison might be made: the first is with the justly renowned Trilogy (published in 1956 and 1957) with which the series of “quarter novels” from the mid-1940s and early ’50s may be seen to culminate, and where there is a clearly visible development in the process of balancing the various elements of “showing” and “telling,” including descriptions of time and place, dialogue between characters, and the various modes of reflection; the second point of comparison is with the novels that Mahfouz published in the 1960s—al-Liss wa-l-kilab (The Thief and the Dogs), for example, Tharthara fawq al-Nil (Adrift on the Nile), or Miramar—where descriptions of time and place are much more terse and allusive, and the techniques of dialogue and interior monologue are invoked in order to reveal (“show”) to the reader the innermost feelings of the characters. By the 1970s, the above-mentioned and more traditional features of Khan al-Khalili, characteristic of a much earlier stage in his development as a novelist, have all but disappeared. I might add here that, as the English translator of his al-Karnak (1974; Karnak Café, 2006), I have almost automatically been made abundantly aware of quite how far Naguib Mahfouz traveled in his career as a novelist in quest of new narrative techniques and appropriate levels of discourse and, in that process, quite how much he contributed to the genre’s development throughout the Arabic-speaking world.
This novel then provides us with an excellent example of a master novelist giving his readers a vivid and detailed portrait of his native Egypt and one of its capital city’s most ancient and august quarters during a crucial stage of the Second World War. Beyond the importance of that historical context, however, it is also an example of the careful research and planning, not to mention the artistry and craft, which were to remain features of his fiction for the next fifty years or more.
Glossary
Abd al-Hayy, Salih (d. 1962): an exponent of the classical style of singing, he became well known during the 1920s, particularly for his performances of the popular poetic genre of mawwal. He also sang with Munira al-Mahdiya (see below).
Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1991): Egypt’s most famous male singer in the twentieth century, renowned for incorporating western instrumentation and melody into his songs.
al-Alamein: on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt, the site of a turning-point battle in 1942 during which Allied forces led by Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery stopped the advance of Axis powers under General Erwin Rommel.
Ali ibn Abi Talib: the Prophet Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law who became the fourth Caliph of Islam and the founding figure of the Shi’a subdivision of the Muslim community (Shi’a being an abbreviation of Shi’at Ali—Ali’s party).
Almaza: a district of Cairo to the northeast of the center, between Heliopolis and the suburb of Madinat Nasr.
al-Azhar: the world-renowned mosque–university in Cairo, founded in the late tenth century.
Bayt al-Qadi: literally “the judge’s house,” a section (and square) of the old city of Cairo between the al-Husayn Mosque and the northern gate, Bab al-Futuh.
Bulaq: a district of Cairo adjacent to the River Nile. It gave its name to the first printing press in Cairo during the reign of Muhammad Ali.
City of the Dead: formerly this name was applied only to Cairo’s southern cemetery, but for some time the name has been used to refer to both the southern and northern ones (the latter being formerly known also as “the tombs of the caliphs”). It is this latter cemetery that is referred to in this novel.
The Complete Work (al-Kamil) by al-Mubarrad, The Scribe’s Manual (Adab al-katib) by Ibn Qutayba, The Book of Eloquence and Clear Expression (Kitab al-bayan wa-l-tabyin) by al-Jahiz, and The Book of Anecdotes (Kitab al-nawadir) by Abu Ali al-Qali from Baghdad: all these are titles of major works that form part of the library of compendia on secretarial writing within the tradition of Arabic prose.
Dab’a: a town on the Egyptian Mediterranean coast, the scene of fighting during the 1942 campaigns.
al-Darrasa: an area that was formerly right on the eastern edge of the city of Cairo, but is now an inhabited suburb close to the City of the Dead (see above) and the Muqattam Hills.
“Do not cast yourself into perdition by your own hands”: Qur’an, Sura 2, verse 195.
Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha: the two great festivals in the Islamic calendar; the first celebrates the end of the fasting month of Ramadan; the second occurs on the the tenth day of the pilgrimage month, Dhu al-Hijja.
farsi, naskh, ruq’a, thuluth: the
names of the scripts utilized in Arabic texts. Fayyum: a depression and oasis to the southwest of Cairo.
Fuka: a small town on the main railway line between Marsa Matruh and Dab’a on the north Egyptian coast.
ful mudammis: a dish made of beans, probably the most characteristic breakfast dish in Egypt.
gallabiya: the floor-length loose garment worn by Egyptian men.
al-Gamaliya: the district of old Cairo immediately to the north of the al-Husayn Mosque. The name is used to designate the entire area between the al-Azhar Mosque and the northern walls of the old city of Cairo.
al-Ghazali (d. 1111): One of the most prominent Muslim theologians, best known for his work, Ihya’ ’ulum al-din (Revival of the Religious Sciences).
Hafiz, Ibrahim (d. 1932): the Egyptian neoclassical and nationalist poet, known as “the poet of the Nile.”
Hanbali: one of the four schools of Islamic law, founded by Ahmad ibn Hanbal.
Hanem: a Turkish word for a woman, but in Egyptian terms a woman of breeding and stature, an honorific title. The use of “Madame” in English parlance conveys something of the same effect.
al-Husayn Mosque: the mosque–shrine in the Khan al-Khalili quarter, dedicated to al-Husayn, grandson of the Prophet Muhammad who was martyred at the Battle of Karbala in 680.
Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406): the theoretician of history whose Muqaddima (Introduction) is regarded as a foundational work in social science. His career took him from North Africa, to Spain, and finally to Egypt. His latter years are the topic of a recent novel, al-’Allama, by the Moroccan writer Bensalem Himmich, available in English as The Polymath (The American University in Cairo Press, 2004).
Ibn Maymun (Maimonides) (d. 1204): the renowned Jewish philosopher and physician, born in Cordoba, who spent the latter part of his life in Cairo.
Ibn al-Mu’tazz (d. 908): the one-day Abbasid caliph, but more renowned in his role as both poet and critic.
Ibn Qutayba (d. 889): a scholar of wide-ranging interests, he composed works on philology, history, theology, and literary criticism. The breadth of his learning is indicated by the scope of his most seminal work, a compendium entitled ‘Uyun al-akhbar (Springs of Information).
al-Jahiz (d. 869): one of Arabic’s greatest polymaths and the acknowledged master of classical Arabic prose style.
jubba (gibba): a broad-sleeved outer garment.
kunafa: a sweet Egyptian dish served especially during Ramadan. It uses shredded wheat as a base, to which is added honey and a variety of other toppings.
al-Ma’arri, Abu al-Ala’ (d. 1057): one of Arabic’s most renowned poets, known for his pessimistic outlook on life expressed in poetry of great complexity.
al-Mahdiya, Munira (d. 1965): an Egyptian actress and singer, particularly during the 1920s when she was a rival to Umm Kulthum (see below).
mahmal: the ornate camel litter sent to Mecca each year for the season of the Hajj (“Pilgrimage”).
al-Manfaluti (d. 1924): an Egyptian essayist who made his reputation by publishing a large number of sentimental and moralistic articles in newspapers that were later collected into two volumes, al-Nazarat (Views), and al-’Abarat (Tears).
al-Manyalawi, Shaykh Yusuf (d. 1911): a singer in the classical style and model for many modern singers. His recordings date to the era before the First World War.
Marsa Matruh: on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt to the west of Alexandria. Now a seaside resort, it was the scene of fighting during the campaigns of 1942.
al-Mubarrad (d. 898): the grammarian of Basra who spent the latter part of his life in Baghdad. His most famous work is al-Kamil (The Complete).
Muhammad Ali Street: a key artery in Cairo that connects Khalig Street (so called because it was formerly a canal, now called Port Said Street) with the square beneath the Citadel.
al-Mu’izz (d. 975): a ruler of the Fatimid dynasty, during whose reign Egypt was conquered and the old city of Cairo constructed.
Mutran, Khalil (d. 1949): known as “the poet of the two regions,” he was born in Lebanon but spent much of his life in Egypt. His poetry combines neoclassicism with hints of an emerging romantic tendency.
al-Muwaylihi, Muhammad (d. 1930): an Egyptian writer and journalist, best known for his pioneering narrative, Hadith ‘Isa ibn Hisham (1907), available in English as A Period of Time (Reading: Ithaca Press, 1992).
New Road (al-Sikka al-Gadida): the road that connected the newly built nineteenth-century part of Cairo, named al-Ismailiya after the Khedive Ismail during whose reign it was constructed, with the old city, the al-Azhar Mosque, and the eastern edge of the city.
Night of Power (Laylat al-Qadr): falling between the twenty-seventh and twenty-eighth day of the month of Ramadan, the night during which the Prophet Muhammad received the first revelation of the Qur’anic text (an event recorded in Sura 97 of the text).
al-Qali (d. 967): a famous philologist who moved from Baghdad to Cordoba in Spain. His best known work is al-Amali (Dictations).
Rud al-Farag: an area of Cairo to the north of Bulaq, renowned for its fruit and vegetable market.
al-Sakakini: one of Cairo’s middle-class suburbs (like al-Abbasiyya where Mahfouz spent the latter part of his childhood) that sprung up outside the bounds of the old city during the latter part of the nineteenth century. It lies immediately to the south of al-Abbasiyya.
Shaaban: the eighth month of the year in the Islamic calendar.
shahada: the Islamic statement of faith, “I bear witness that there is no god but God and that Muhammad is His Prophet.”
Shawqi, Ahmad (d. 1932): the Egyptian neoclassical poet, renowned for the musicality of his verse, who was given the title “Prince of Poets.”
shisha: the local name for the water pipe, narghileh, “hubble-bubble.”
Sitt: by contrast with “Hanem” (see above), “Sitt” is the commonly used word for the female head of a household. It means “woman” but implies something close to the English “Mrs.”
taamiya: a characteristic Egyptian dish, made with fried beans and garlic.
Umm Kulthum (d. 1975): “the Star of the East,” the Arab world’s most famous singer of the twentieth century and a personal favorite of Mahfouz himself.
Zaghlul, Saad (d. 1927): Egyptian nationalist leader who was a personal hero of Mahfouz. References to him appear in many of the novelist’s works.
zar: an exorcism ceremony conducted by and for women.
al-Zaytun: a district in the central northern part of Cairo, between Shubra and Heliopolis.
Naguib Mahfouz, Khan Al-Khalili
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