28 espaliered apricots: That is, apricot trees trained to grow flat against a wall.
28 boc … tilbury: The word boc is from the Norman patois, or dialect, and refers to a little open cabriolet, or light, two-wheeled, one-horse carriage. The tilbury, another type of light, two-wheeled carriage, had recently been introduced from England and was considered very fashionable. In those days one’s fortune and elegance were easily measured by the luxury of one’s carriage and horse or pair of horses.
29 scarf he wore around his head: See note to p. 13.
29 guard stone: A stone set close to a wall, at the corner of a building or next to a gate or door, to protect it from being damaged by a passing carriage. In French it is called a borne, which is also the word for “milestone,” from its resemblance to the latter.
29 highway: This word is used along with “big road” or “main road” throughout the novel to mean the road that connected the surrounding villages and towns and the city of Rouen.
29 like a man … after dinner: The French for this curious comparison is comme ceux qui mâchent encore, après dîner, le goût des truffes qu’ils digèrent. Comparing Charles’s blissful “ruminations” (the word “ruminate” also means, with respect to a cow, chewing its cud—that is, something already swallowed) with the aftertaste of a truffle is certainly an antiromantic gesture on Flaubert’s part. Not to everyone’s taste, and yet highly esteemed by some and very expensive, truffles are strongly flavored blackish fungi that grow on the roots of oak trees and are sniffed out by specially trained dogs and pigs. They have many culinary uses, being shaved over pastas or salads, combined with roast meats or cheeses, or, where a working farmer hunts them for himself, simply mixed into an omelet.
29 muffs: In cold weather, in addition to wearing gloves or mittens, a woman might carry a muff—that is, a warm, tubular covering, often made of fur—either to keep her hands warm or merely as a fashion accessory.
30 Paul and Virginia: A love story by Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre published in 1788. The story is set on the Isle of France (now Mauritius) in the Indian Ocean, depicted as a paradise far from corrupt civilization. The two young lovers are doomed: Virginia dies in a shipwreck, and Paul then dies of grief. The story, highly romantic and very popular, became enduringly famous.
30 Mademoiselle de La Vallière: Louise Françoise de La Baume Le Blanc de La Vallière (1644–1710), mistress of Louis XIV from the age of seventeen, bore him four children. She was eventually replaced in his affections and retired to a Carmelite convent, becoming celebrated for her piety.
30 catechism: A manual of religious instruction in Christian doctrine consisting of questions and answers to be memorized.
31 Abbé Frayssinous’s Lectures: Abbé Denis de Frayssinous (1765–1841) is famous chiefly for the lectures he gave at Notre-Dame and other churches in Paris and for his instrumental part in the religious revival during the Restoration (1814–30).
31 The Genius of Christianity: A defense of Christianity by François-René de Chateaubriand against attacks by French Enlightenment philosophers and revolutionary politicians. Its publication in 1802 made Chateaubriand one of the most important writers in France. His writings, full of melancholy, exotic description of nature, and evocative language, were highly influential on nineteenth-century French culture generally; specifically, he is considered a founder or forerunner of romanticism in French literature, which flourished under the Restoration.
32 postilions killed at every stage: In the period during which Madame Bovary takes place, one form of long-distance travel was by stagecoach: a fare was paid for a seat in the coach; the coach was pulled by one or more pairs of horses; the tired horses were exchanged for fresh horses at relay stages, where there would be an inn with stables; postilions were men who rode one of the front horses to guide the team.
32 Walter Scott: Sir Walter Scott (1771–1832), a Scottish poet and novelist of the Romantic period, was an important influence on the development of the historical novel.
32 ogives: An ogive is a diagonal arch or rib across a Gothic vault; it is one of the characteristic features of Gothic architecture.
32 Mary Stuart … Joan of Arc, Héloïse, Agnès Sorel, La Belle Ferronnière, and Clémence Isaure: Mary Stuart was better known as Mary Queen of Scots (1542–87), the only child of James V of Scotland; because of her strong claim to the throne of England, she was a threat to her half sister Elizabeth I, who eventually had her put to death. Joan of Arc, a heroine of French history, led her army to victory against the English in Orléans in 1429 while still a girl and was subsequently burned by the English as a witch. Héloïse (1101–64), a beautiful and learned woman, became known for the love letters she wrote to her husband and former tutor, the philosopher Pierre Abélard, after they were forcibly separated; she had entered a nunnery and he a monastery. Agnès Sorel (c. 1422–50), the politically powerful mistress of Charles VII of France, was said to have been poisoned by the dauphin, Louis XI. La Belle Ferronnière was the nickname of one of the mistresses of François I; he was devastated by her sudden death. Clémence Isaure, a wealthy fifteenth-century patroness of poetry in the Languedoc region of France, though she has statues in Toulouse and Paris, appears to have been purely legendary.
32 Saint-Louis … Bayard dying … Louis XI’s ferocities … Saint Bartholomew, the Béarnais’s plume … Louis XIV: Saint Louis, or Louis IX (1214–70), was a pious, ascetic, and diplomatic king of France, 1226–70; he was said to have held court and delivered judgments sitting under a large oak in the forest of Vincennes. Pierre du Terrail de Bayard (1474–1524) was a French military hero who died in battle. Louis XI (1423–83) became king of France (1461–83) after many years of rebellion and intrigue as dauphin (see Agnès Sorel above). Saint Bartholomew was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus; the reference here is probably to the famous Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (August 24, 1572), in which large numbers of Huguenots, or French Protestants, were killed and which resulted in the resumption of civil war in France. The popular Henri IV, first of the Bourbon kings, nicknamed “the Béarnais,” led his troops into battle (most notably at the victorious Battle of Ivry in 1590) with a snow-white plume on his helmet. Louis XIV, the “Sun King,” was a lavish patron of the arts and literature; his long reign (1643–1715) saw a great flowering of French civilization; see also note to p. 30 on Mademoiselle de La Vallière.
32 keepsake: In English in the original.
32 New Year’s gifts: The custom, in France, of giving gifts on New Year’s Day began as early as the thirteenth century and did not die out until late in the nineteenth, when it was supplanted by gift giving on Christmas Day.
33 ladies: In English in the original.
33 Turkish slippers: Boots or shoes with a very long, pointed toe.
33 Giaours: From the Turkish giaur, “unbeliever,” a scornful term once applied by Turks to infidels—that is, usually, Christians.
33 Argand lamp: A lamp invented in the late eighteenth century that burned whale oil and gave a brighter light than earlier oil lamps. It was the lamp of choice until it was replaced by the cheaper kerosene lamp c. 1850.
33 hackney cab: The equivalent of today’s taxi.
33 Lamartinean meanderings: That is, reveries in the style of Alphonse Marie Louis de Prat de Lamartine (1790–1869), a poet, writer, and statesman regarded as the first truly romantic poet in French literature. His subjects were nature, religion, and love, all subjectively presented. Flaubert scorned him: in one letter to Louise Colet, he remarked, “We must look to wellsprings—Lamartine is no more than a faucet.” In another he referred to Lamartine’s verses as “garbage.”
34 post chaise: A four-wheeled traveling carriage with, usually, a closed body seating two to four persons. It was either hired from stage to stage or drawn by horses hired from stage to stage, and the driver or postilion rode on one of the horses. For those who could afford them, they were speedy and convenient.
35 cottage: In English in the original.
35 pellets of bread crumbs: These pellets were used to erase charcoal drawings.
36 mouth-rinsing bowls: Bowls containing warm, flavored water presented at the end of the meal for rinsing the mouth and the fingers. They were considered a refinement reserved for high society.
38 barrier ditch: This is saut-de-loup in the original; also called a “ ha-ha,” it is a fence placed in a deep ditch so that from a distance there is no apparent break in the meadow. This passage is one of those in which Flaubert abruptly switches tense from past to present, as though to imply that his landscape is real and still exists today. Proust saw these sudden irruptions of the present tense as signaling a more enduring reality.
38 prunella-cloth shoes: Prunella is a heavy woolen fabric used for the uppers of boots and shoes. Prunella shoes were softer than leather but good only for summer wear.
38 barouches: A barouche was a fashionable four-wheeled carriage with a driver’s seat high in front, two double seats inside facing each other, and a top that folded accordion-style over the backseat.
39 Djali: Emma’s dog is evidently named after a pet goat that figures in Victor Hugo’s novel Notre-Dame de Paris (1831; The Hunchback of Notre-Dame).
39 lancet: A small, sharp, flat-bladed surgical instrument used for bloodletting, vaccinations, and small incisions.
40 in front of the apron: The apron of a carriage was a piece of waterproof cloth attached in front of the driver’s seat as a protection from rain or mud.
40 park: The private grounds attached to a château or prosperous country house, usually including lawns, woodland, and pasture. Access to the house would be along what the French would call an avenue, which Henry James would also have called an avenue, and which we would describe as a drive or road. Within the park would be allées, or alleys—walks bordered by trees or bushes.
40 decorated: That is, having medals or ribbons denoting various honors either in their buttonholes or pinned to their jackets.
40–41 “Jean-Antoine … 1693”: Although the names are fictitious, the battles did actually take place.
41 jabot: A decoration of lace or a thin fabric such as muslin attached to the base of the shirt collar or the front of a neckband and spreading down over the chest.
42 gloves in their glasses: This would have indicated that they did not wish to be served wine.
42 Comte d’Artois … Marquis de Conflans … Marie Antoinette … Monsieur de Coigny … Monsieur de Lauzun: The Comte d’Artois (1757–1836), brother of Louis XIV, was later Charles X, king of France (1824–30), and a friend of Marie Antoinette; he was deposed in favor of Louis-Philippe. Louis Gabriel d’Armentière, Marquis de Conflans (1772–1849), was a peer of France and a field marshal. Marie Antoinette (1755–93), married at age fifteen to the timid Louis XVI of France, had numerous love affairs in the early years of her marriage; she was guillotined at the time of the Revolution. Marie François Henri de Franquetot, Duc de Coigny (1737–1821), was part of Marie Antoinette’s intimate circle. Armand Louis de Gontant-Biron, Duc de Lauzun (1744–93), was rumored to be one of Marie Antoinette’s lovers.
42 prepared herself: In French, faire sa toilette, which we would once, in English, have called “performing her toilet,” consisted of everything involved in preparing herself to go into company: dressing, applying makeup, arranging her hair. It could also be a time of sociability, during which one would entertain friends.
42 barege: Named after its place of origin, Barèges, a town in the Pyrenees; a gauzy fabric usually made of wool and silk or cotton.
42 foot straps: Straps that extended down from the bottoms of the pant legs and passed under the foot; these were quite common at the time.
43 ritornello: A short instrumental motif, repeated before each couplet of a song or each repetition of a dance.
43 quadrilles: The quadrille is an intricate four-or five-part dance for four couples in square formation, fashionable in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
43 little gold-stoppered bottles: Although several previous translations have inserted the word “perfume” or “fragrance” into the description, the French original does not specify what is meant to be in the bottles. In fact, it is clear from earlier drafts of the passage that what Flaubert had in mind was not perfume but vinegar—presumably to revive a woman suffering a dizzy spell brought on by the heat, the close air, her exertion, and perhaps her tight corset. Later in the novel, vinegar is produced for this purpose, first in the bloodletting scene, when young Justin faints at the sight of the blood (see p. 112) and then when Emma herself faints over dinner (see p. 182).
43 Lace trimmings … clinked on bare arms: At least three times in the novel, Flaubert employs a peculiar syntax, grouping first a series of three subjects, then a matching series of three verbs, each verb corresponding to only one subject. The second and third instances occur during the scene of the agricultural fair (see pp. 115 and 131).
43 louis: A louis was worth twenty francs.
44 Saint Peter’s … the Colosseum: Saint Peter’s Cathedral is in Rome. Tivoli is an ancient city near Rome celebrated for its beautiful setting, its waterfalls, and its ruins. Castellammare di Stabia, a resort town and spa in southern Italy, lies on the site of a Roman resort buried by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius, the only active volcano on the European mainland. The Cascine was a very large park in Florence on the banks of the Arno; it was a popular tourist attraction in the nineteenth century particularly, and always figured in the list of “must-sees.” Genoa, a city on the Riviera, is the chief seaport of Italy; the steep and narrow streets of its old section are very picturesque. The Colosseum, an amphitheater in Rome near the Forum, is the most imposing of the Roman antiquities; seating about forty-five thousand spectators, it was the site of gladiatorial combats until A.D. 404. With his usual cynicism, Flaubert is having his characters admire only the most typical of the tourist attractions.
44 jumping a ditch: A reference to steeplechasing. Racecourses had only recently been introduced into France—the Jockey Club was started in 1833—so racing vocabulary might well be unfamiliar to Emma.
45 After supper: The schedule according to which refreshments were served at a ball was fairly rigid in those days. The maraschino ice that Emma consumed might have been served at about 11:00 P.M., the ample supper at 2:00 A.M.
45 Trafalgar puddings: Also known as jam roly-poly, shirtsleeve pudding, dead man’s leg, and dead man’s arm, this was a traditional English dessert invented probably in the early nineteenth century and consisting of a suet pudding rolled out flat, spread with jam, and then rolled up. While not necessarily tastier than a traditional French dessert, it had the attraction, at that time, of being English.
45 cotillion: Apparently, some versions of the cotillion were rowdier than this one, incorporating pranks and challenges, but at the least it was the dance that ended the evening and involved frequent changes of partner.
45 Emma did not know how to waltz: The waltz, introduced into France from Germany around the turn of the nineteenth century, was still regarded as somewhat risqué, since it involved a great deal more body contact and turbulent motion than the sedate traditional quadrille, for example, with its facing lines and fingertip contacts. Mothers feared for their daughters as they were whirled away in
the confusion of the cotillion.
46 whist: A card game popular at the time, enjoyed by King Louis-Philippe himself.
46 brioche: A roll baked from light yeast dough enriched with eggs and butter.
47 breeching: The part of the harness that passes around a horse’s rump under the tail.
49 Pompadour clocks: The Marquise de Pompadour (1721–64) was a mistress of Louis XV and a Voltairean; she employed artists to decorate her residences and encouraged the manufacture of Sèvres pottery.
49 “Marjolaine”: A familiar abbreviated reference to “Les Compagnons de la Marjolaine,” a well-known, anonymous, centuries-old popular song with many verses, about a company of night watchmen seeking brides.
49 Corbeille … Le Sylphe des Salons: Corbeille (1836–78) was a fashion magazine. Le Sylphe des Salons (1829–82, under various names) covered, at various times and in various combinations, literature, the fine arts, the theater, and fashion.
49 the Bois: The Bois de Boulogne, a forest at the edge of Paris containing the racetracks of Auteuil and Longchamps and many avenues and bridle paths; a favorite recreation spot starting in the seventeenth century.
49–50 Eugène Sue … Balzac … George Sand: Eugène Sue (1804–57) was the author of popular and sensational novels about the Parisian underworld and slum life; they were serialized in the newspapers during the 1830s. Honoré de Balzac (1799–1850) was one of the foremost novelists of France, author of the vast Human Comedy. George Sand was the pseudonym of Amandine-Aurore-Lucie Dupin, author of some eighty novels and widely popular in her day.
50 petits bourgeois: The French term for members of the “petite bourgeoisie,” or lower middle class, which includes minor businesspeople, clerical staff, craftworkers, and tradespeople such as shopkeepers. Unlike the “haute bourgeoisie,” or upper middle class, members of the lower middle class may work alongside their employees. This class is also distinguished from the working class, which relies solely on selling its own labor to survive. Emma, of course, is here agreeing with Flaubert himself, in deriding what she (or he) sees as the mentality of the class—narrow, prejudiced, conservative, culturally unenlightened.