5 May–26 June: Chemist Ikeda Kikunae (1864–1936), later inventor of MSG, introduced to Sōseki by a Fifth National College colleague, takes temporary lodging in Sōseki’s rooming house on his way back to Japan after a period of study in Leipzig; Sōseki is so impressed by Ikeda’s erudition and cultivated intelligence that their long, intense conversations stir him to engage in more substantial, systematic research.
July: Changes rooming houses one last time, and for final year and a half in London, spends practically all his time in his room, reading and taking notes for what will be his Bungakuron (“Theory of Literature”, 1907). The strain and isolation take a toll on his mental stability.
1902 (35) 30 January: Anglo-Japanese Alliance signed, clearing the way for Japan to fight Russia over control of Korea; war fever builds slowly. The first “equal” military treaty between Japan and a Western power (in force until 1922), it causes great elation in Japan, but Sōseki derides it, comparing it to a poor man running around the village ringing bells and beating drums because he’s bagged a rich wife (see Sanshirō, Chapter 6).
Autumn: Rumors of a mental breakdown reach Japan, putting University plans to hire him to work with Lafcadio Hearn on hold. Tries to calm his nerves by taking up cycling. Late November: Receives word that Shiki has died. 5 December: Leaves London for return to Japan.
1903 (36) 24 January: Arrives in Tokyo, finds father-in-law has lost his political appointment, and Kyōko and children living with him in near-poverty. Moves Kyōko and children into new rental house; must now partially support father-in-law. Friends have arranged part-time teaching positions for him: twenty hours of English at First National College (¥700/year) and six hours of literature at Tokyo Imperial University (¥800/year). Manages to resign from Kumamoto with doctor’s certificate of mental problems. April: lectures begin. University students complain about his dry, analytical lectures after the more flamboyant style of predecessor Lafcadio Hearn (see Translator’s Note). Disappointed with students’ limited abilities, considers resigning. June: Publishes sardonic London memoir, “Bicycle Diary” (“Jitensha nikki”), in Hototogisu, signed “Sōseki.” Nervous strain leads to over two months’ separation from pregnant Kyōko. Fall lectures on literary theory and English literature well attended.
3 November: Third daughter, Eiko, born. He seeks diversion in painting and calligraphy. Newspapers calling for war against Russia.
1904 (37) February: Lectures to University faculty in the hilltop “Mansion” (see Sanshirō, Chapter 2) on his London theatre-going. Scholarly publications appear under “Natsume Kinnosuke.” War fever leads to outbreak of Russo-Japanese War, inspires Sōseki (writing as “Natsume Sōseki”) to publish jingoistic “new style” poem (shintaishi), “Jūgun-kō” (“Onward With the Troops”), extolling “swords that thirst for blood.” April: Adds a third part-time teaching job, at Meiji University (¥30/month). Much creative writing toward the end of the year. Others publish anti-war sentiments toward end of year and are accused of harboring “dangerous thoughts.”
1905 (38) New Year’s issues of three magazines carry his work: the story “Wagahai wa neko de aru” (“I Am a Cat”), signed “Sōseki,” essays “Rondon-tō” (“The Tower of London”) and “Kārairu hakubutsukan” (“Carlyle Museum”), signed “Natsume Kinnosuke”. Soon begins using “Natsume Sōseki” regularly. Sequels of “I Am a Cat” continue through August 1906, humor rising from high jinks and wordplay to genuine satire, scathing critique of war fever, darkening portrait of mustachioed, heavy-smoking depressive scholar protagonist.
May: Japan destroys Russia’s Baltic fleet. Sōseki’s explosive productivity continues. Torn between academic career and full-time writing. Short pieces from this time draw on Arthurian legends and London experience. A dozen young “disciples” begin to frequent the Natsume home.
September: New University student from Kyushu, German literature major Komiya Toyotaka (1884–1966), the model for Sanshirō, visits. Portsmouth Treaty seals Japan’s victory in Russo-Japanese War.
October: First volume of I Am a Cat published.
15 December: Fourth daughter, Aiko, born.
1906 (39) January: Publishes “Shumi no iden” (“The Heredity of Taste”), harsh critique of Russo-Japanese war fever, horrific sacrifices of over 100,000 Japanese fighting men under “heroic” General Nogi Maresuke (1849–1912). February: Refuses academic committee work.
March: Shimazaki Tōson (1872–1943) publishes novel Hakai (The Broken Commandment), beginning the rise of Japanese naturalism, the mainstream literary movement discussed in Sanshirō (Chapter 9); enthusiastically praised by Sōseki.
April: Simultaneously publishes tenth chapter of “Cat” and short novel Botchan (“Little Master”), based on Sōseki’s year in Matsuyama but set against the Russo-Japanese War and ending in a rush of “righteous” violence. May: Suffering with chronic gastric catarrh; asks “disciple” to organize theoretical lectures for book publication. August: Eleventh and final chapter of I Am a Cat appears. September: Publishes “haiku novel,” Kusamakura (“Pillow of Grass”, or The Three-Cornered World) on the tension between modern life and poetic detachment. Father-in-law dies, reducing the number of relatives Sōseki must support. This and income from writing enable him to resign third job, at Meiji University, in October. Begins custom of welcoming visitors every Thursday after 3 p.m., initiating the Thursday Group. November: Middle volume of I Am a Cat published. Turns down invitation to join the Yomiuri Shinbun newspaper staff in charge of literature. Family moves into rental house in the University neighborhood: Nishikatamachi ten, block B, number 7 (cf. Professor Hirota’s Nishikatamachi ten, block F, number three).
1907 (40) January: Publishes short novel, Nowaki (“Autumn Wind”) in Hototogisu, much ranting against the rich, called by some the best novel of 1907. 24 February: Asahi Shinbun newspaper inquires if he might consider becoming a staff novelist. Negotiations continue until 15 March (government sponsorship of foreign study obligates him to teach until this month). ¥200 monthly salary higher than editor-in-chief’s, book royalties are his to keep, all fiction to be serialized in the Asahi. Submits resignations to University and College, joins the newspaper officially in April. The news causes a sensation, but Sōseki insists that working for a newspaper is neither more nor less a trade than working for a university. May: Advertisement for his first professional novel, Gubijinsō (“The Poppy”), appears, inspires feverish marketing of “Poppy” robes and “Poppy” rings. Volume of University lectures, Bungakuron (“Theory of Literature”) appears under the name “Natsume Kinnosuke.”
5 June: First son, Jun’ichi, born. Government becoming concerned about corrupting effects of individualistic literature on compliant populace, Prime Minister invites writers to a gathering, but Sōseki declines. Serialization of The Poppy begins in Asahi Shinbun, continues through October. Warmly received by public, less so by critics. Overwritten and moralistic, it disappointed even Sōseki, who soon wanted to kill off his overwrought heroine. Final volume of I Am a Cat published.
September: Angrily moves out of Nishikatamachi house when landlord raises the rent.
November/December: writing next novel.
1908 (41) 1 January: Naturalist movement coalescing in all the major journals, prompts government to increase censorship of “dangerous thoughts” in literature. Serialization of Kōfu (The Miner) begins, continues until 6 April to universally negative reviews. Abstract, phantasmagorical, written in a simple style in contrast with The Poppy’s jewel-encrusted language, too radically modernist for most readers. General disappointment with Sōseki; 1906 was “his year,” but 1907 showed his decline, his lack of seriousness as compared with the naturalists, say critics. July: Linked stories, “Yume jūya” (Ten Nights of Dream), serialized. 1 September: serialization of Sanshirō begins, continues until 9 December; it is warmly received, and has significant element of humor.
October: Government announces a “campaign of national mobilization” to stem the tide of “dang
erous thought” such as socialism, naturalism, anarchism, individualism, etc.
17 December: Birth of second son, Shinroku.
1909 (42) 1 January: Literary journals discuss rumors of impending establishment of a government-sponsored literary academy. 19 January: Attends Minister of Education’s party for literary men, opposes idea of an official academy of literature as a form of control. March: Publishes Bungaku hyōron (“Criticism of Literature”), a compendium of University lecture notes on topics in English literature, signed “Natsume Sōseki.” Former foster father, Shiohara, begins pressuring him for money; unpleasant negotiations continue through November. May: Sanshirō published in book form. Readers of Taiyō magazine choose Sōseki as the best writer to serve on a government literary academy, if established; he rejects the award. National Diet issues first Press Law, strengthening government’s control of literature. Censorship and protests increase. 27 June: Serialization of Sore kara (And Then) begins, continuing until 14 October. Protagonist more intelligent and internalized than Sanshirō, much darker view of human and international relations, awareness of police as ominous presence: the first of Sōseki’s late novels. August: Attack of acute gastric catarrh. 2 September: Leaves for tour of Manchuria and Korea until 17 October. 21 October–30 December: Serializes “Man-Kan tokoro-dokoro” (“Travels in Manchuria and Korea”), a victor’s eye view of the land wrested from Russian control, cut short at year’s end (nothing on Korea). 25 November: Inaugurates weekly “Bungei-ran” (Literary Column) in Asahi Shinbun, featuring wide variety of writers. 28 November: Pays Shiohara ¥100 to end their relationship.
1910 (43) 1 March–12 June: Serialization of Mon (‘The Gate’), dark culmination of trilogy that began with Sanshirō; protagonist fails to find comfort in religion.
2 March: Fifth daughter, Hinako, born. June–February: Suffering with stomach ulcers, nearly dies at Shuzenji Hot Spring on 24–25 August, hospitalized until February 1911.
June–January: Government crushes leftist political and literary activity in trumped-up “High Treason Incident,” execution of prominent socialists; decade-long “winter years” of socialism begin.
September–December: Writing poetry and memoirs; painting.
1911 (44) February–April: Spars publicly with Ministry of Education over honorary Doctorate of Letters; Sōseki refuses to accept it, Ministry refuses to take it back. 18–20 May: Publishes three-part critique of Ministry of Education’s new “academy,” the Committee on Literature, and its goal to encourage the production of “wholesome” literature. 11 August: Leaves Tokyo on four-lecture tour for Osaka Asahi Shinbun (includes “Gendai Nihon no kaika” (“The Civilization of Modern-day Japan”)) but hospitalized for ulcers after final lecture on 18th, unable to return to Tokyo until 14 September. Hemorrhoid surgery; treatment into following year. 12 October: Personnel problems lead to end of Asahi Literary Column. 1 November: Sōseki tenders pro-forma resignation but remains on Asahi staff.
29 November: Sudden death of daughter Hinako (at twenty months). Memorializes his sorrow in next novel.
1912 (45) 1 January: Begins serializing Higan-sugi made (To the Spring Equinox and Beyond), until 29 April; episodic parody of detective story notable for “Rainy Day” chapter on sudden death of small daughter. Stomach ailments, nervous tension.
30 July: Meiji emperor dies; name of period changed from Meiji to Taishō. 13 September: Cannon fire in imperial palace signals massive funeral of Emperor Meiji; General Nogi Maresuke commits ritual disembowelment, following the emperor in death.
26 September–2 October: Hospitalized for second hemorrhoid surgery. 6 December: Begins serialization of Kōjin (The Wayfarer); unfocused, interrupted by health problems.
1913 (46) January–June: Period of intense depression. March–May: flare-up of ulcers. 7 April: Last installment of Kōjin until September. In bed at home until late May. Summer: Unsuccessful attempt at oil painting. 16 September: Serialization of Kōjin resumes, completed 15 November with intense portrait of intellectual who sees only possible release from breakdown in human communication in faith, madness or death. Watercolor painting.
1914 (47) 20 April: Serialization of masterpiece Kokoro begins, until 11 August; set against end of Meiji period, protagonist’s struggle with ego ends in death. June: Transfers official domicile from Hokkaidō to Tokyo.
15 July: Dines with Raphael von Koeber, who plans to return to Germany. 28 July: Outbreak of First World War, Koeber trapped in Japan. Enjoying calligraphy and ink painting.
September–October: Fourth flare-up of ulcers. Painting to pass the time. Creates original binding design for Kokoro, which becomes maiden publication of Iwanami Shoten, Japan’s soon-to-be premier publisher and authoritative publisher of Sōseki’s posthumous Complete Works. 25 November: Lecture, “Watakushi no kojinshugi” (“My Individualism”).
1915 (48) January–February: Serializes memoir “Garasudo no uchi” (Inside My Glass Doors). March–April: Fifth flare-up of ulcers while traveling to Kyoto with friends; Fusa dies in March. 3 June–10 September: Serializes Michikusa (Grass on the Wayside), overtly autobiographical novel on childhood adoption, aftermath, becoming a writer. November: Resting at hot springs. Begins reading Dostoevsky with mounting interest.
December: First visit to Sōseki’s home by budding writer Akutagawa Ryūnosuke (1892–1927), author of Rashōmon and Seventeen Other Stories (Penguin, 2006), who joins the Thursday Group and becomes one of Sōseki’s “disciples.” Apparent rheumatism making writing painful.
1916 (49) January: Serializes “Tentōroku” (“A Record of Affirmation”), reflections on the current war in Europe as a battle between German militarism and British individual freedom, declaring his gratitude for life and his determination to use the time he has left as well as he can. 19 February: Lavishly praises Akutagawa’s maiden work, “Hana” (“The Nose”). Mid-April: New diagnosis reveals that his “rheumatism” is actually diabetes; treatment continues until July. 7–16 May: Bedridden with stomach pain, begins writing last novel, Meian (Light and Darkness), serialization begins 26 May: modern life and marriage as a battlefield of egos. By August he is writing one unpleasant installment of Meian in the morning, and spending afternoons on comforting traditional pastimes (watercolor painting, calligraphy, Chinese poetry).
Early November: Speaks to Thursday Group about phrase sokuten kyoshi (“follow heaven, abandon the self”), possibly just a slogan for successful calligraphy, sincerity of expression in writing, or the ultimate answer to the pain of modern life, as seen in works as early as I Am a Cat.
22 November: Final ulcer flare-up begins, ending on 9 December with death. A national event. Funeral services presided over by Zen priest friend who failed to guide him to enlightenment in 1894. Ashes buried in Zōshigaya Cemetery.
14 December: Final installment of unfinished Meian appears.
1918–19 Iwanami Shoten publishes first of many Sōseki zenshū (Complete Works of Sōseki), in 14 volumes, with colorful binding Sōseki designed for Kokoro. Disciple Komiya Toyotaka, the model for Sanshirō, participates in editing, becomes major editor of later editions and Sōseki biographer.
1984–2004 Sōseki replaces Itō Hirobumi (1841–1909), the Restoration leader and autocrat he mocked in I Am a Cat, on the face of the ¥1000 bill.
NOTE
1. Meiji Period: On Japanese era names, see the article headed “nengō” in Japan: An Illustrated Encyclopedia, 2 vols (Tokyo: Kodansha Ltd., 1993) vol. 2, p. 1073.
Introduction
The (Generally) Sweet Smell of Youth
I confess, I became seriously interested in the works of Natsume Sōseki only after I had reached adulthood. Between my university graduation and the time of my marriage, I hardly looked at anything of his—which is not exactly accurate, come to think of it, because I was already married before I graduated from the university. But the main thing about that time in my life is that I was poor.
Why didn’t I bother to read Sōseki before then? I really can’t r
emember, but perhaps the biggest reason is that, from my early teens, I was obsessed with foreign fiction and simply never bothered to read Japanese novels. Another reason might be that I had not been much moved by the Sōseki novels we read in school (the problem there being with the choice of works, perhaps). Then again, during the turbulent 1960s, when I was in my teens, the reading of Sōseki was not fashionable: it won you no admiration or praise. That was the age of revolution and counter-culture, the time of Che Guevara and Jimi Hendrix. Nowadays, of course, Natsume Sōseki is the representative modern Japanese novelist, a figure of truly national stature, but his works were not all that warmly received back then, I think—at least not amongst the younger generation.
I got married in 1972 to a university classmate of mine (who remains my wife to this day). She graduated before I did and went to work as a proofreader under contract to a publishing company. I took a series of part-time jobs while attending the university a few days a week to earn the remaining credits I needed to graduate—clerking in a record store, waiting on tables, that sort of thing. And when I had time, I did housework—laundry, cooking, cleaning, shopping, taking care of the cats. I was a kind of house-husband. It was a hard way to live, but I didn’t mind it too much, except for the fact that we didn’t have enough money to buy books.
We were, as I said, poor, or perhaps I should say that we were trying hard not to spend money. We were planning to open a little jazz club. For us, leading secure lives by taking respectable jobs with respectable companies was simply not an option. It didn’t interest us. And so the two of us worked hard and saved our money. If we couldn’t afford a gas stove, we made it through the cold nights by sleeping with our cats, all huddled together. If the alarm clock broke, we couldn’t buy a new one. But we were young and healthy and eager, and we had a goal.