Another major SF strength is planning.
This might surprise lovers of adventure movies, but SOF personnel are not mindless killers. SF soldiers know better. That’s not the way things really get done. Mindless killers tend to get killed downrange. In truth, SF soldiers are among the brightest folks you will ever meet. They will spend hours considering every detail of even the simplest training class, looking for better ways to accomplish their mission. Many carry into the field state-of-the-art laptop computers and digital cameras, and often use them to create operational planning documents with enough substance to interest the JCS.
Of course, every SF soldier always has at the ready “stubby pencil” planning tools—a notebook, pen or pencil, compass, map, and protractor—just in case.
Special Forces Missions
• Foreign Internal Defense (FID)—The most frequent SF mission, FID involves teaching the military, paramilitary, and police forces of other nations to better A Special Forces soldier (kneeling) instructs Venezuelan soldiers in marksmanship. This training is conducted as a “Foreign Internal Defense” mission, one of several deployed Special Forces teams can execute in the field.
OFFICIAL U.S. ARMY PHOTO
defend themselves against subversion, insurgency, and high-end criminal activity. This mission can be run anywhere in the warfare spectrum, from prewar peacetime, to wartime resistance efforts, and even post-war military reconstruction.
• Antiterrorism Training—That is, the training of other nations’ forces in the basics of the counterterrorism art. This includes surveillance techniques, close-combat weapons and tactics training, and special planning procedures.
• Special Reconnaissance (SR)—Perhaps the most common and vital SF combat mission, SR is an intelligence-gathering mission that involves obtaining or collecting information regarding the capabilities, intentions, activities, or equipment of an enemy force.
• Unconventional Warfare (UW)—UW was the core mission of the original members of the 10th SFG back in 1952, and it now covers a broad spectrum of warfare skills, both military and paramilitary. It is mainly practiced by indigenous, militia, or native units, which are organized, trained, equipped, and supported by SF personnel operating under a national policy finding or decision.
• Direct Action (DA)—DA covers short-duration operations ... in other words, raids—small offensive actions of limited size, scope, and duration, designed to seize, damage, or destroy specific targets. Targets by the way, cover a variety of items, including military equipment, bases, personnel, or other materials designated by higher command or the national command authorities.
• Collateral Activities—In addition to their primary mission activities, SF ODAs frequently are tasked with any of a number of peripheral jobs. These include:—Humanitarian Assistance—When deployed downrange, ODA medical personnel (18D) are frequently asked to use their considerable talents to improve the health of and treat local, native, or host nation personnel.
—Security Assistance/Mobile Training Teams (SA/MTT)—Occasionally during missions, ODAs will form MTTs to teach local military, paramilitary, and police force personnel particular skills, procedures, or orientation on new equipment. In addition, SF personnel are also sometimes assigned to provide local security for political leaders and other VIPs.
—Counter-Mine Activities—SF soldiers are frequently tasked to instruct host nation personnel in the necessary skills and procedures to demine an area. In many cases, this takes on the form of a “train-the-trainer” course, where SF soldiers teach others their own teaching techniques, so that the “tribal” knowledge of countermining is preserved locally.
—Counterdrug Activities—To help the military, paramilitary, and police forces of host nations combat narcotics growth, processing, and trafficking, SF soldiers are occasionally tasked to train local personnel in the techniques and tactics of counternarcotics warfare. This includes training in intelligence gathering, raid planning and execution, and proper law enforcement techniques.
—Peacekeeping—SF personnel have recently become deeply involved with peacekeeping missions. Following the conclusion of their successful Ecuador operations, they are now involved in the Balkans missions in Bosnia and Kosovo.
—Combat Search and Rescue (CSAR)—SF units sometimes are tasked to provide the ground security element of a CSAR mission to recover downed aircrews or other personnel. The SF soldiers are teamed with helicopters and other support aircraft to assist in the recovery.
—Coalition Support—Because of their unique combination of language skills, regional orientation, and cultural sensitivity, SF soldiers are often tasked to provide liaison services between U.S. and coalition allied forces.
The knowledge and skills required of these missions are all part of the “Q” Course core curriculum, and subsequent specialty school training. An SF ODA can normally accomplish any of these, and probably do a pretty good job.
Slices of the Pie: Areas of Responsibility (AORs)
Under the Goldwater-Nichols and Nunn-Cohen bills, each regional command has various subcomponents, including one specifically to coordinate SOF activities. These component commanders actually control the major collections of units (Army, Air Force, Marine, Naval, SOF, etc.) assigned in the event of a crisis. For example, during Desert Storm the Central Command Air Force (CENTAF) boss was my old friend General Charles “Chuck” Horner, USAF (Ret.). In that capacity, he controlled just about everything that flew. As might be imagined, such control has caused more than a few personal disagreements. But until someone comes up with a better system, the current unified command operations structure is the best there is.
The Special Operations Command (SOC) components for each unified command have the same regional orientation as the SFGs themselves. A senior SOF officer who reports directly to the four-star theater commander (CINC) heads each. Currently, these are the active regional SOC commands, and the officers who command them:• Special Operations Command, Central (SOCCENT)—Commanded by Brigadier General Frank J. Toney, Jr. USA, SOCCENT is based at MacDill AFB, Florida, with a forward headquarters located in Bahrain. General Toney commands the SOC forces in today’s most active theater. The SF contingent in these forces is the 5th SFG. CENTCOM is responsible for U.S. military operations from the Horn of Africa to the Stans, as well as all the Persian Gulf states, Afghanistan, and Pakistan.
• Special Operations Command, Europe (SOCEUR)—The largest SOC component by the number and size of units assigned, SOCEUR has two full groups (3rd and 10th SFGs) and part of the 19th SFG available for SOF operations. EUCOM’s territory covers everything between the North Cape and the Cape of Good Hope, and extends as far inland as Russia and Israel. SOCEUR is commanded by Brigadier General Eldon A. Bargewell, USA.
• Special Operations Command, South (SOCSOUTH)— Like the rest of SOUTHCOM, SOCSOUTH has acquired new responsibilities with the handover of the Caribbean region from USACOM. SOCSOUTH has recently moved its headquarters from the Canal Zone in Panama to Puerto Rico. A longtime SF soldier, Brigadier General James W. Parker commands SOCSOUTH, and controls both the 7th and 20th SFGs.
• Special Operations Command, Atlantic (SOCLANT)—Following the recent handover of its remaining regional responsibility to SOUTHCOM, no dedicated SFG is assigned. SOCLANT is commanded by an O-6, Colonel Hayward S. Florer, USA.
• Special Operations Command, Pacific (SOCPAC)— Based in Hawaii, SOCPAC is commanded by Brigadier General Jack R. Holbien, USAF. He has two SFGs dedicated to his region; the 1st SFG and most of the 19th SFG, if needed.
• Special Operations Command, Korea (SOCKOR)—While technically not a major regional command, U.S. Forces, Korea, is commanded by a four-star Army general with his own dedicated SOC commander. SOCKOR is headed by Colonel Robert C. Leicht, USA, who has a Special Forces Detachment in country the forward-deployed 1/1st SFG on Okinawa and other on-call SOF forces as assigned from other commands.
Special Forces CONOPS: A Few Examples
; Let’s look now at the ways Special Forces groups are packaged and sent on their missions. Be aware that SF leaders approach this subject with a certain minimalist attitude. They know that a few SF ODAs are not going to win a war, campaign, or even a battle. Special Forces understand that they are an enabling force that—if all goes as planned—will allow larger, more powerful forces to prevail.
A map showing the current areas covered by each of the active-duty Special Forces Groups, and their assigned unified command.
We’ll look at three representative SF deployment force packages. While there is no “standard” SF deployment force, these represent the kinds of units that SFC likes to mix together for the jobs they’re likely to be assigned.
Example #1: Low-Intensity, Permissive Operations
The vast majority of Special Forces missions are relatively small deployments, usually composed of one to three ODAs, and backed up by an ODB for command-and-control purposes. Such a package is ideally suited to enter a friendly host nation to conduct training. Let’s say that a friendly Latin American host nation has requested and been granted a ninety-day JCET mission by the Department of State and the JCS. SFC then tasks 7th SFG at Fort Bragg with a requirement for a package of two ODAs and an ODB that will be deployed downrange in approximately six to nine months. This gives the group command staff the necessary lead time to select the teams to be sent, assign a mission commander, and conduct the necessary premission site surveys in the host nation.
The next phase of the JCET begins approximately three months prior to the actual mission deployment, when the selected teams begin to train. The teams are “selected” from teams in what is called “Amber” status. That is, these teams have been home for a few months, have had some leave and/or training, and are ready to be tasked.69
Around this time, a site survey team (one or two personnel) will deploy to the host nation to visit the U.S. embassy, coordinate activities and plans, and select the necessary billeting and training facilities. They will also arrange for any special logistical, communications, transportation, or infrastructure purchases/leases that may be needed. For example, most Latin American countries have a well-developed cellular phone system. This is an invaluable coordination and emergency communications tool. Back home, their notes and ideas will be used by the teams in their training.
Approximately four weeks before deployment, the SF team training will still be ongoing, and premission packing will begin. At this point, transportation becomes the critical issue. The amount of personnel, gear, and supplies to be taken determines how it will be shipped. For example, the SF soldiers might fly to a Caribbean Island, while their heavy gear and supplies are placed in cargo containers to be transported via truck and ship.
Obviously, SF personnel love to use heavy-lift transports like C-17A Globemaster Ills, which can carry most everything in one big lift, but such operations are costly, and TRANSCOM (Air Force Transportation Command) doesn’t have many of them.
During the weeks just prior to the deployment there are lots of briefings for the mission and team leaders, so they will fully understand the world they’ll be moving into. These leaders will meanwhile also brief their own training, deployment, force protection, communications, and emergency procedures plans to the group and SFC command staffs, and to State Department representatives. Only when everyone agrees that they are ready is the mission approved and the deployment order signed.
While this is going on, the individual SF soldiers are getting their shots, updating wills, and preparing for the separation from family, friends, and loved ones.
On deployment day, the teams are packed and ready to move. In the event that TRANSCOM has supplied a military aircraft, they will launch out of Pope AFB (next to Fort Bragg). Otherwise, everyone will dress in civilian clothing and take commercial flights to the host nation.
Once the teams have arrived, they will initially be put up in a hotel near the U.S. embassy, and their first few days will be spent in embassy briefings and getting to know their host nation unit personnel. Rental vehicles and cell phones will also be picked up and issued. Only after everyone has been properly introduced and briefed will the teams be allowed to move downrange to their deployment sites near the host nation units they will be training.
Once downrange, each team will have a site selected for use as a team house—frequently a private residence that the team leases for a period of months. At other times the team might use an empty barracks, or even deploy tents (though this is now rare).
A team house must be easily defended in the event of a terrorist incident or riot, and have several escape and evasion (E&E) routes available. Some level of comfort is also desirable (air-conditioning and a satellite TV dish are a big advantage). Finally, since teams may actually be hundreds of miles apart, the prime selection criterion for a team house is its utility.
From this last, the leap is not far to command, control, and communications. Just what radios and other communications systems does an SF major need to run his three teams and keep SOCSOUTH, SFC, and the national command authorities informed of his progress and situation? Again, a minimalist attitude is best. For starters, team communications sergeants have a variety of radios and cryptographic systems to choose from when equipping a team for a mission. The ODAs would normally establish a communications center (actually a bench) in a comer of the team house. Here they would normally set up at least three secure communications systems—satellite communications (SATCOM) transceiver, a high-frequency (HF) radio system, and SABRE frequency modulated (FM) radio network. A cellular telephone (if available) is usually included as a further backup.
The SATCOM system will be rigged to operate with both a voice and data capability, which allows communication anywhere in the world on a moment’s notice. 70 The HF radio is more limited, being restricted to Morse key transmissions. However, with the Morse limitations comes greater reliability and availability than the SATCOM systems. This is due to the legendary HF antenna-cutting skills of the 18Es and the limited number of SATCOM channels and transponders that SPACE-COMcan dedicate to these missions at any one time.71 The FM SABRE radio system is normally used for local and tactical voice and data communications. Cellular telephone systems can also be useful, but, of course, lack the cryptographic security of the radio systems.
The ODB communications setup uses the same gear, but because they need to communicate regularly with the outside world, and especially back to Fort Bragg, they normally have twice as much of it. Thus, they will normally establish two sets of SATCOM and HF radio systems, one for working with the ODAs locally, and the other for reporting back to “the world.”
Once all these systems are set up, a routine reporting schedule is established, usually several times daily, with additional checks during critical periods or events. The radio traffic back to the U.S. is sent to the SFC communications center on Chicken Road at Fort Bragg, where it is then distributed to the various interested parties. While radio brevity is appreciated as an Operations Security (OpSec) issue, I’ve never heard of anyone on an FID mission being called out for checking in too often. Bitter lessons over four decades downrange have taught SF soldiers to be cautious, even in the most pleasant host nation. (I might add that every SF mission takes along a full array of weapons, including M16s, M249 SAW, M230 40mm grenade launchers, and other systems as required.) More than once, a peaceful FID mission has changed into a fast-breaking combat assignment. SF soldiers have to be ready.
A mission force protection plan can also include security obstacles and armed guards (if necessary). But normally, the best force protection involves imbedding the teams into the local community, and making friends with ordinary folks. When they eat at local restaurants, buy food and other supplies from local vendors, and—in general—help the local population (like sending the 18D medical sergeant on house calls), the teams become friends and not the rich, overbearing American cousins. Friendly behavior has regularly proved to be far more effective than body armor a
nd fortress walls at keeping team members safe.
(Remember that a big part of FID missions involves selling America to the host nationals; heavily armed soldiers make for a hard sell.)
For that reason, team members usually wear uniforms and BDUs during their training classes and civilian clothes when outside the team house.
Now that the teams are bedded down, their communications established, and security set up, the actual purpose of the FID mission can begin: training of host nation units. Normally, the two ODAs would be tasked to train company- or battalion-sized military, paramilitary, or police units in various tactical, operational, and equipment techniques. These classes follow an exact lesson plan, which always includes indoctrination in human rights policies as well as more belligerent skills. Even the ODB gets into the training act, usually delivering lectures and technical skills training in land navigation, radio communications, mission planning, and the like. These train-ingplans are also followed to the letter, with regular evaluations for the students and lots of reports home to group headquarters and SFC.
Toward the end of the three-month deployment, the classes end and the teams begin packing up. Back at home base, a few steps remain. Once gear has been cleaned and turned in, reports must be written, debriefings held, and a total mission assessment made. This assessment will determine the success of the operation and whether or not future FID missions will be scheduled to the host nation.
Once all these tasks have been completed, the teams are declared to be in the “Red” cycle, and sent on leave.
Meanwhile, future missions are already being prepared for the teams, and will soon be assigned. The cycle never ends.