SOCOM is unusual in other ways as well.
First, most other unified commands either “own” (that is, train and equip) or “fight” units, but not both. When a unified command is about to “fight,” the units it needs are “chopped” to it from the commands that “own” them. Though the original “owners” will still be expected to provide supplies, maintenance, and replacements of personnel and equipment, the units are now “owned” by the command that is “fighting” them. This works out much more smoothly in practice than it reads on paper (Desert Shield/Storm provide a good example).
SOCOM, however, doesn’t work that way. It is the only unified command that can both commit units in combat and train and package SOF components for other CINCs.
Second, USSOCOM does not have a particular service or regional affiliation. The other unified CINCs have a territorial responsibility. U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM) protects U.S. interests in the Middle East, South Asia, and northeast Africa (i.e., the Muslim world). EUCOM’s primary interest is in Europe; PACOM’s is in areas that ring the Pacific.
SOCOM, however, has responsibilities across the entire world, and these responsibilities include the full spectrum of missions, from counterterrorism to all-out war.
Third, SOCOM is the smallest of unified commands ... and by a wide margin. When CENTCOM went to war during Operation Desert Storm in 1991, it fought with almost 500,000 personnel under its control. In the spring of 1999, SOCOM had something less than 30,000 people in its various components. All of SOCOM, in other words, is smaller than a normally staffed and equipped Army or Marine division.
Such a diverse command requires a leader who can bridge the multitude of service, cultural, financial, and material challenges that SOCOM presents.
SOCOM has recently been blessed with exceptional leadership in the top position (CINCSOC).
In 1996 and 1997, the CINCSOC was General Henry Hugh Shelton, USA. During his tenure, Shelton did much to “sell” the command’s units and capabilities to its “customers” around the world (that is, to bridge the problems and differences between SOCOM and the other seven unified commanders and our allies). So impressive were his achievements in this and previous assignments that he was appointed Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, the first time a Special Operations professional has held the position.
General Peter Schoomaker, the commander of the U.S. Special Operations Command based at MacDill AFB in Florida.
JOHN D. GRESHAM
When Shelton left SOCOM, in September of 1997, he was replaced by General Peter J. Schoomaker, USA. Though Schoomaker is another SOF professional (he had previously commanded the Joint Special Operations Command that handles antiterrorism), he began as an armor officer, and his career has been a mix of assignments to both armor and SOF units, as well as a host of important “joint” assignments. In the process, he attended almost every important school and qualification course the Army has to offer (as well as the Marine Corps Amphibious Warfare School). All of this experience has provided him with a vast reservoir of knowledge about the many communities his command has to work with and serve, and has greatly enhanced his ability to continue General Shelton’s efforts to “sell” special forces.
Though SOCOM is now built on a solid organizational foundation, General Schoomaker and his staff have more than their share of problems.
On the low end of the spectrum: They have to share MacDill AFB with the commander and staff of CENTCOM, probably the busiest of the unified commands over the past decade. Base traffic jams and seating problems at official functions aside, there is a serious struggle going on at MacDill ... and it’s not about whose name is mentioned first on the base phone roster. Though only a few short blocks separate the two headquarters buildings, the gap between the two is considerable. CENTCOM represents the “big” U.S. military (it has successfully fought America’s largest military action since World War II), while SOCOM represents a “new” kind of warfare, one that frequently threatens the very unified commands it is mandated to support.
The component commands of SOCOM. From left to right, USASOC, NACSPEC-WARCOM, AFSOC, and JSOC
OFFICIAL DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE, U.S. ARMY, U.S. NAVY, AND U.S. AIR FORCE GRAPHICS
Unconventional warfare is the antithesis of the large unit operations that most of the Army is trained to perform. That such small forces might do the same job, and perhaps do it better, is very threatening to “Mother Army.”
This means that General Schoomaker, his staff, and the 30,000 or so personnel under them have to face a great deal of friction. It is far from easy to operate and maintain what is for all practical purposes a fifth military service ... all of whose pieces must be supplied by three different branches of the military, none of which ever wanted SOCOM to see the light of day. In other words, CINCSOC is now in charge of the most hated (or at least feared and misunderstood) command in the U.S. military, yet he must also act as the chief salesman for that command and its services to customers who often include the very people who are doing the hating.
It is a tough job. Thankfully, the top leadership at SOCOM has come a long way from the cavalier attitudes of some of the command’s early leaders. General “Hugh” Shelton’s ascendancy from CINCSOC to Chairman of the Joint Chiefs says much about how far the command has come.
SOCOM Components: SEALs, Air Commandos, and Army
Within SOCOM, General Schoomaker commands a collection of SOF units from the Army, Air Force, and Navy.
As previously mentioned, SOCOM has no U.S. Marine Corps units. The Marines have always integrated their SOF units (Force Reconnaissance, Raiders, etc.) into the operation doctrine and structure of the USMC. In recent years, they have concentrated their Special Operations capabilities into the specialized afloat units, creating the Marine Expeditionary Unit, Special Operations Capable—MEU (SOC). Thus, the Marines were excluded from the Nunn-Cohen Amendment. The rest of the services, however, had no choice about the future of their SOF units.
The official emblem of NAVSPECWARCOM
OFFICLAL U.S. NAVY GRAPHIC
Each service’s SOF units were grouped into a separate “component” command within SOCOM. These break down as follows:• Naval Special Warfare Command (NAVSPECWARCOM)—NAVSPECWARCOM controls the famous Sea-Air-Land (SEAL) teams and their supporting special boat squadrons, submarines, and delivery vehicles. These units handle Special Operations missions in the littoral zones of the oceans and coasts. NAVSPECWARCOM is based at Coronado, California, near San Diego, and has units stationed around the world.
• Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC)—Based at Eglin AFB, Florida, AFSOC is composed of specialized helicopter and transport aircraft units that formerly made up the old Air Commando squadrons. Though primarily focused on transporting units from other commands to their destinations, and then supporting them, AFSOC not only delivers a considerable combat punch on its own, but also supports the preparation of landing zones and airfields for followup units.
• Joint Special Operations Command—JSOC is a multiservice/interdepartmental command, with antiterrorism as its primary job. It is based at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, and includes a command staff that oversees training and operations of the Army’s Delta Force, the Navy’s SEAL Team Six, and reportedly elements of the FBI’s Hostage Rescue Team (in time of national emergency or insurrection).
• U.S. Army Special Operations Command (USASOC)—Something like 25,000 SOCOM personnel are contained in this single component command, which includes the U.S. Army Special Forces Command (Airborne), the 75th Ranger Regiment, the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (SOAR), the JFK Special Warfare Center and School, the U.S. Army Civil Affairs and Psychological Operations Command, the U.S. Army Special Operations Support Command, and assorted chemical reconnaissance units. Headquarters is located at Fort Bragg.All of these components make up one of the busiest and most powerful commands of its size in the world, and man for man, they can probably stand up to any other unit in the world.
/> The official emblem of AFSOC
OFFICIAL U.S. AIR FORCF GRAPHIC
In addition to the basic SOCOM command structure, there are Special Operations component commanders within each of the other warfighting CINC staffs around the world. For example, just a few blocks from SOCOM headquarters at MacDill AFB, Special Operations Command, Central (SOCCENT), has an office at the CENTCOM building. This is the CENTCOM element that would utilize any special operations forces that SOCOM might be ordered to package and send to them.
The following table shows the various CINC component command elements and shows how major special operations forces are laid out within the command structure set forth in Goldwater-Nichols and Nunn-Cohen:
Unified Military Commands and Special Operations Assignments
Let’s now look more closely at the Special Forces located within USASOC.
U.S. Army Special Operations Command (USASOC): Rangers, Nightstalkers, and Special Forces
The largest of SOCOM’s component commands, USASOC is housed in a massive new headquarters building on the southeastern side of the Fort Bragg reservation in North Carolina. Well separated from the other Army units based on the post (the XVIII Airborne Corps and 82nd Airborne Division are located there as well), they live in some of the newest and most secure quarters you are likely to see.
Commanding the roughly 25,000 personnel of USASOC is Army Lieutenant General William P. Tangney. Originally an artillery officer, he became a Special Forces soldier in 1969, and has remained in the special operations community ever since. Along the way, he has acquired an awesome resume of assignments and schools, including a course at the Naval War College at Newport, Rhode Island. His mission is to make USASOC the command of choice for special operations missions around the world. He certainly has the tools to make that a reality.
The official emblem of JSOC
OFFICIAL DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE GRAPHIC
USASOC is composed of six basic parts (or communities), each of which is important to its roles and missions. To understand them better, let’s look at USASOC’s component units, and some of their capabilities:• 75th Ranger Regiment12—The 75th, which is based at Fort Benning, Georgia, is the descendant of the famous Ranger battalions that “led the way” during many of the famous assaults of the Second World War. Composed of three highly trained and jump-qualified Ranger battalions, the 75th is equipped to occupy or destroy large targets such as airfields and ports ... or even small countries. They did this twice in the 1980s when they jumped as the lead elements of Operations Urgent Fury (Grenada, 1983) and Just Cause (Panama, 1989).
• 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (SOAR—the “Nightstalkers”)— The most secret and technologically advanced unit in USASOC, the Nightstalkers provide the rest of the command with the aviation support that was lacking during the Iranian hostage rescue in 1980. Headquartered at Fort Campbell, Kentucky (also the home of the 101st Airborne Division, Air Assault), the 160th flies a mix of helicopters, which are all heavily modified and specialized. These include:—MH-47D/E Chinook—The long-range, heavy-lift component of the 160th, the MH-47 is a heavily modified variant of the Army’s famous twin-engine/rotor Boeing Chinook helicopter. Equipped with a specially engineered mission equipment package (terrain following radar—TFR; forward-looking infrared scanner—FLIR; radar, electronics countermeasures—ECM; an in-flight refueling probe, etc.) and computer system, the MH-47 is able to do the kinds of nonstop missions that were impossible in Iran back in 1980. A single MH-47 can carry up to twenty fully equipped Special Operations personnel or a rubber boat with a dozen men.
—MH-60K/L Pave Hawk—Based upon the popular UH-60 Blackhawk, the MH- 60 is the little brother to the MH-47 Chinook. Equipped with a similar mission equipment package, the Pave Hawk is designed to conduct similar missions of shorter duration and with smaller payloads. However, the MH-60K model is equipped with an in-flight refueling probe so that longer missions can be flown, as well as air-to-ground rockets and machine guns. There are also unconfirmed reports of an attack version of the MH-60K, known as the AH-60. It reportedly has a laser designator in addition to the normal mission equipment package, as well as a pair of 30mm chain guns. This gives it firepower similar to that of the AH-64 Apache attack helicopter, which includes both Hellfire and Stinger missiles for attacking ground and air targets respectively.
—A/M/TH-6 “Little Bird”—The most secret of the 160th’s aircraft, the Little Bird is actually a family of light attack, assault, and surveillance helicopters that are based upon the H-6/MD-500 series helicopter built by Boeing (formerly McDonnell Douglas and Hughes). Though the details surrounding these birds are highly classified, we know that most are equipped with a lightweight FLIR system, and can be armed with 7.62mm six-barreled miniguns and air-to-ground rockets. The Little Bird can also be used as an urban assault transport helicopter, equipped to “fast rope” up to six special operations personnel into built-up environments like cities and industrial zones.The Nightstalkers specialize in night operations, where their advantages in sensors, navigational equipment, weapons, and crew skills can translate into a potent edge in combat; and they have seen their share of action since they were formed in the early 1980s. From the invasion of Grenada to operations in Bosnia today, the 160th owns the night, and stays busy!
The official emblem of USASOC
OFFICIAL U.S. ARMY GRAPHIC
• Civil Affairs/Psychological Operations Command—As mentioned earlier, one of the most effective ways to get your way is to “persuade” the other guy to give up ... or else to decide that you are right. “Persuasion” (PR, advertising, rhetoric, call it what you like) applies as much in warfare as it does in a schoolyard or politics. It therefore makes sense that the Army’s repository of expertise in these areas resides in one of the “smartest” commands in the Army. Headquartered at Fort Bragg, the CA/PSYOPS Command is composed of nine component units. These include:—2nd, 4th, and 7th PSYOP Groups—These three groups are the core of the Army’s PSYOPs capability. The 4th PSYOP Group is based at Fort Bragg, while the 2nd and 7th Groups are members of the reserve, and are based at Parma, Ohio, and San Francisco, California, respectively.
—96th CA Battalion—The 96th is based at Fort Bragg, and is the only active-duty CA unit in the Army.
—358th and 361st CA Brigades—These are two large CA brigades assigned to the reserves. They are based at Norristown, Pennsylvania, and Pensacola, Florida, respectively.
—351st, 352nd, and 353rd CA Commands—These three reserve units are smaller than their brigade counterparts, and are based at Mountain View, California; Riverdale, Maryland; and the Bronx, New York, respectively.
USASOC Organization Chart
RUBICON, INC., BY LAURA DENINNO
• Special Operations Support Command (SOSCOM)—Logistics and communications are never “sexy.” But without them, no military operation will go well or far. The Army’s SOS Command provides spare parts, supplies, and a huge variety of services for USASOC. The two major component units are:—528th SO Support Battalion—Based at Fort Bragg, this unit provides the basic supply and service function for the rest of USASOC.
—112th Signal Battalion—Also based at Fort Bragg, the 112th services the wide range of communications, data processing, and networking requirements for USASOC.
• U.S. Army John F. Kennedy (JFK) Special Warfare Center (SWC) and School—This is the USASOC schoolhouse. Originally formed to support the training and selection of new Special Forces soldiers, it has grown into a center of learning for the entire USASOC special operations community. In 1999, it taught everything from trauma medical techniques to satellite communications. Along the way, it is the repository for everything the Army has ever learned about special operations, unconventional warfare, and all the other tricks of this deadly and valuable trade. A number of subsidiary schools around the country teach specialties like SCUBA diving and free-fall parachute jumping and there are several field schools, as well.
; • Special Forces Command (SFC)—This is the home of the Green Berets, and is composed of approximately 10,000 personnel. It is thus the largest single component within both SOCOM and USASOC. SFC is made up of active-duty and National Guard Special Forces Groups (SFGs), as well as active and reserve Chemical Reconnaissance Detachments (CRDs), and is the “brains” portion of USASOC (as opposed to the 75th Ranger Regiment’s “muscle”). The command, based at Fort Bragg, breaks down as follows:—1st SFG—Based at Fort Lewis, Washington (with one of its battalions forward-deployed to Okinawa), the 1st SFG provides services to PACOM/SOCPAC.
—3rd SFG—Assigned to support EUCOM/SOCEUR operations in western and southern Africa, the 3rd SFG is based at Fort Bragg. They also support CENTCOM /SOCCENT operations as needed.
—5th SFG—Perhaps the best known and most decorated of the groups (as a result of its service in Vietnam), the 5th SFG is assigned to support CENTCOM/ SOCCENT in eastern Africa, the Middle East, and southwest/central Asia. The 5th Group calls Fort Campbell, Kentucky, home.
—7th SFG—Also based at Fort Bragg (with a company forward-based in Puerto Rico), the 7th SFG handles operations for SOUTHCOM/SOCSOUTH in Latin America and the Caribbean Basin.
—10th SFG—Just moved into their new quarters at Fort Carson, Colorado (with a forward-based battalion in Germany); the 10th SFG was the first such unit formed (back in 1952), and covers Europe for EUCOM/SOCEUR.