CHAPTER 33: The Fall of Catalonia
1 The Army of the Centre had around 100,000 men, while the Estremadura front had 50,000 and Andalucia 20,000. The Army of Levante had 21 under-strength divisions and four and a half in reserve. At the beginning of December 1938 the People’s Army possessed no more than 225,000 rifles, 4,000 light machine-guns and 3,000 machine-guns (Ramón Salas, Historia del Ejército Popular).
2 Negrín could also count on the support of a small group within the CNT around Mariano Vázquez, a larger group within the UGT and a fraction of the PSOE, led by its general secretary, Ramón Lamoneda.
3 Saborit, Julián Besteiro, Buenos Aires, 1967, p. 421.
4 Stevenson to Lord Halifax, 31 October 1938 in BDFA, vol. 27, Spain, July 1936–January 1940, p. 222.
5 Miralles, Juan Negrín, p. 302.
6 Ibid., p. 303. Negrín had asked for this arms shipment on 11 November in a letter delivered personally to Stalin by Hidalgo de Cisneros. Five annexes to the letter listed their needs, including 2,150 field guns, 120 anti-aircraft guns, 400,000 rifles, 10,000 machine-guns, 260 fighters, 150 bombers, 300,000 shells and so on. The shipment left Murmansk and reached Bordeaux on 15 January, by which time Tarragona had already fallen. Only a small part crossed the frontier and the republicans did not even have time to open the crates.
7 Ciano, Diarios, p. 223.
8 Thomas, La guerra civil española, p. 940.
9 Ciano, Diarios, p. 235.
10 At the end of 1938 the nationalists and their allies mustered fourteen squadrons of Fiat CR 32 fighters and three squadrons of Messerschmitts with twelve aircraft each. Added to the Fiat force based in the Balearics, this gave them over 200 fighters (a total roughly equal to their combined bomber forces of Junkers 52s, Heinkel IIIs and Savoia-Marchettis).
11 Salas, La guerra de España, pp. 445–6.
12 Ibid., p. 404.
13 Richthofen war diary, BA-MA RL 35/38.
14 Ibid.
15 Ibid.
16 Stepánov, Las causas de la derrota, p. 150.
17 Cordón, Trayectoria, p. 375.
18 Bolloten, La Revolución española, p. 932.
19 Rojo, ¡Alerta los pueblos!, p. 121.
20 Ibid., p. 125.
21 Quoted in Recuérdalo tú…, p. 674.
22 Abella, La vida cotidiana…La España republicana, p. 415.
23 Quan érem capitans, Barcelona, 1974, p. 149.
24 Guillermo Cabanellas, La guerra de los mil días, Barcelona, 1973, vol. ii, p. 1047.
25 Ciano, Diarios, p. 258.
26 Benet, Catalunya sota el règim franquista, Paris, 1973, vol. i, p. 222.
27 Fraser, Recuérdalo tú…, p. 674.
28 Benet, Catalunya sota el règim franquista, p. 229.
29 BA-MA RL 35/7.
30 Ibid.
31 Emil Voldemarovich Shteingold, ‘My Last 10 Days in Spain’, RGVA 35082/3/32, pp. 1–5.
32 Zugazagoitia, Guerra y vicisitudes…, p. 523.
33 Daladier had proposed that a free zone was established on Spanish soil in which to intern refugees, but this was rejected by Negrín as well as by Franco.
34 BA-MA RL 35/8.
35 BA-MA RL 35/7.
36 Regler, Owl of Minerva, p. 321.
CHAPTER 34: The Collapse of the Republic
1 Luis Romero, El final de la guerra, Barcelona, 1976, p. 134.
2 Ibid., pp. 124–5.
3 Elorza and Bizcarrondo, Queridos camaradas, p. 430.
4 Stepánov, Las causas de la derrota…, pp. 168–9.
5 Mundo Obrero, 12 February 1939.
6 Togliatti, Escritos sobre la guerra de España, p. 275.
7 Tuñón, Historia de España, vol. ix, p. 506.
8 ABC, Madrid, 14 February 1939.
9 Alpert, El ejército republicano, p. 313.
10 See Miralles, Juan Negrín, p. 311; Togliatti, Escritos…, p. 279; Elorza and Bizcarrondo, Queridos camaradas, p. 431.
11 Colonel Ribbing’s report from Spain, General Staff, Former Secret Archive, Foreign Department, KA E III 26, vol. 1, p. 22.
12 The gold handed over was worth almost $27 million. See Joan Sardà, El Banco de España, p. 452.
13 Memoirs, New York, 1948.
14 Azaña, Obras Completa, vol. iii, p. 567.
15 Also Colonel Moriones, of the Army of the Centre, Colonel Camacho, head of the air force in the zone, and General Bernal, commander of the naval base of Cartagena.
16 Casado’s first acquaintance with anarchists had come during the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, when Casado was imprisoned and became friends with libertarians in jail. See Alpert, El ejército republicano, pp. 301ff.
17 Romero, El final de la guerra, p. 138.
18 See Luis Suárez, Francisco Franco, in preparation, and Martínez Bande, Los cien últimos días de la República.
19 Romero, El final de la guerra, p. 123.
20 Ibid., p. 138.
21 See Martínez Bande, Los cien últimos días de la República.
22 BA-MA RL 35/8.
23 For the most thorough account of the uprising, see Luis Romero, Desastre en Cartagena, Barcelona, 1971.
24 Other appointments included González Marín, CNT, finance; Miguel San Andre´s, Izquierda Republicana, justice and propaganda; Eduardo Val, CNT, communications and public works; José del Río, of Unión Republicana, education and health; and Antonio Pérez, of the UGT, labour. Melchor Rodríguez, of the CNT, became the new mayor of Madrid.
25 All the speeches are printed in full in Romero, El final de la guerra, pp. 261-8.
26 Cipriano Rivas Cherif, Retrato de un desconocido, p. 437.
27 Luis Romero, El final de la guerra, pp. 274–5.
28 Miralles, Juan Negrín, p. 324.
29 BA-MA RL 35/8.
30 Elorza and Bizcarrondo, Queridos camaradas, p. 434.
31 Togliatti, Escritos sobre la guerra de España, p. 297.
32 Tagüeña, Entre dos guerras, p. 310.
33 Marías, p. 248.
34 Tuñón, Historia de España, ix, p. 526.
35 BA-MA RL35/7.
36 Richthofen war diary, BA-MA RL 35/38.
37 Casado, The Last Days of Madrid, p. 259.
38 Marías, p. 255.
39 Marías, p. 261.
40 ABC, 2 April 1939, Romero, El final de la guerra, p. 421.
41 Ciano, Diarios, p. 276.
CHAPTER 35: The New Spain and the Franquist Gulag
1 Richthofen war diary, BA-MA RL 35/38. The Condor Legion reached Hamburg by ship on 31 May and on 6 June it paraded through Berlin.
2 Luis Suárez, Franco: la historia y sus documentos, iv, p. 33.
3 Among the other appointments were Esteban Bilbao, minister of justice; José Larraz, minister of finance; Vice-Admiral Moreno, minister of marine; Luis Alarcón de la Lastra, minister for industry and commerce; Joaquín Benjumea, minister of agriculture and labour; Juan Ibáñez Martín, minister of national education; Alfonso Peña Boeuf, minister of public works.
4 Javier Tusell, Dictadura franquista y democracia, p. 45.
5 This was overseen by the Servicio Nacional de Reforma Económica y Social de la Tierra, set up by the nationalists in 1938.
6 See Carlos Barciela (ed.) Autarquía y mercado negro, Barcelona 2003, pp. 55ff.
7 Glicerio Sánchez and Julio Tascón (eds), Los empresarios de Franco, Barcelona, 2003, p. 237ff.
8 See Elena San Román, Ejército e industria: el nacimiento del INI, Barcelona, 1999.
9 Franco statement to Henri Massis, published in Candide, 18 August 1938.
10 Suárez, Franco, pp. 119ff.
11 Joan Clavera (ed) Capitalismo español: De la autarquía a la estabilización, 1939–1959, Madrid, 1978, pp. 179ff.
12 Tusell, Dictadura franquista y democracia, p. 98.
13 Blinkhorn, Carlismo y contrarrevolución, p. 411.
14 Carreras and Tafunell, Historia económica de la España contemporánea, p. 277.
15 See for example, Rob
ert Graham, A Nation Comes of Age, London, 1984.
16 Antonio F. Canales, La llarga postguerra, Barcelona, 1997, p. 178.
17 Kemp, Mine Were of Trouble, pp. 49–50.
18 Rodrigo, Cautivos, p. 209.
19 Ibid.
20 See Anne Applebaum, Gulag, London, 2003.
21 Casanova (ed.), Morir, matar, sobrevivir, p. 31.
22 Michael Richards, Un tiempo de silencio, p. 30; and Dionisio Ridruejo, Escrito en España, p. 93.
23 For example, around 5,000 were killed in the province of Valencia; 4,000 in Catalonia; in Madrid’s East Cemetery 2,663 executions were registered up to 1945; in Jaén, 1,280 up to 1950; in Albacete 1,026 between 1939 and 1953; and so on. Casanova, Morir, matar, sobrevivir, pp. 19ff; Santiago Vega Sombría, De la esperanza a la persecución, p. 279. Paul Preston has pointed out that 92,462 individually named victims have been identified in just 36 of Spain’s 50 provinces.
24 For example, in the notorious San Marcos prison in León, more than 800 died of hunger and cold.
25 Vinyes, Irredentas, p. 114.
26 Francisco Moreno, Víctimas de la guerra civil, p. 278.
27 Juana Doña, Desde la noche y la niebla.
28 Francisco Moreno, Víctimas de la guerra civil, p. 278.
29 Richards, Un tiempo de silencio; and Vinyes, Irredentas.
30 á ngela Cenarro, La sonrisa de Falange, in preparation.
CHAPTER 36: The Exiles and the Second World War
1 Between 1936 and 1938, there had been three waves of different sizes: the first in the summer of 1936; the second following the fall of Santander and the Asturias in June 1937; and the third as a result of the Aragón campaign in the spring of 1938. The first wave of 15,000 refugees came mainly from the Basque country when the nationalists attacked Irún and San Sebastían. The second amounted to 160,000, and the third of 14,000, including 7,000 men of the 42nd Division cut off in the Bielsa pocket in the Pyrenees. Of these three waves, most returned to republican territory, leaving just 40,000 in France at the end of 1938 (Dolores Pla Brugat, ‘El exilio republicano español’ in AULA Historia social, no. 13, Valencia, Spring, 2004; Bartolomé Bennassar, La guerre d’Espagne et ses lendemains, Paris, 2004, p. 363).
2 Mera was released from prison in 1946. He made contact with old friends from the CNT and then had to flee to France again, where he died in 1975.
3 Emil Voldemarovich Shteingold, ‘My Last 10 Days in Spain’, RGVA 35082/3/32 p. 1.
4 Antonio Soriano, E´ xodos, Historia oral del exilio republicano en Francia 1939–1945, Barcelona, 1989 p. 23.
5 Arthur Koestler, La lie de la terre, Paris, 1946, p. 148.
6 Candide, 8 February, 1939.
7 See Geneviève Dreyfus-Armand, El exilio de los republicanos españoles en Francia; Bennassar, La guerre d’Espagne et ses lendemains; Tusell, Dictadura franquista y democracia, p. 36.
8 Dreyfus-Armand, p. 79; Tusell, Dictadura franquista y democracia, p. 36.
9 See Bennassar and Dreyfus-Armand, who do not agree over figures.
10 Junta de Auxilio a los Republicanos Españoles.
11 Manuel Ros, La guerra secreta de Franco, Barcelona, 2002, p. xxiv.
12 Suárez, Franco: la historia y sus documentos, vol. v, p. 87.
13 Ibid., pp. 153–4.
14 Heiberg, Emperadores del Mediterráneo; and Preston, Franco.
15 Preston, Franco, pp. 524–5.
16 Heiberg, Emperadores del Mediterráneo.
17 Ros, La guerra secreta de Franco, pp. 146–52; for the role of Captain Alan Hillgarth RN, see David Stafford, Churchill and Secret Service, pp. 237–8.
18 The Blue Division was withdrawn by an ever-cautious Franco in 1943, when the war was clearly going against the Axis. But 2,200 men stayed behind in the Legión Azul, which in turn would be dissolved in January 1944. Its survivors became the Legion Española de Voluntarios, although most were attached to SS units until the end of the war. Total Spanish losses in the Soviet Union out of 45,500 participants were approximately 5,000 dead, 8,700 wounded, 2,137 maimed, 1,600 cases of severe frostbite, 7,800 sick and 372 prisoners, who did not return to Spain until April 1954 aboard the Semiramis. The total cost of 613,500,000 pesetas was offset against the Spanish debt for the Condor Legion. See Xavier Moreno Juliá, La División Azul. Sangre española en Rusia, 1941–1945, Barcelona, 2005.
19 Helmut Heiber (ed.), Hitler y sus generales, Barcelona, 2005, p. 398.
CHAPTER 37: The Unfinished War
1 Pierre Vilar, La guerra civil española, p. 176.
2 They included Jorge Semprún, a member of the resistance who would later become minister of culture in the new democratic Spain after Franco’s death in 1975.
3 RGASPI 495/120/236, p. 57.
4 A. V. Elpatievsky, Ispanskaya emigratsiya v SSSR, Moscow, 2002.
5 Order of People’s Commissar for Internal Affairs, 1942, No. 3498, 16 November 1942, Moscow, GARF P-9401/9/896.
6 GARF 2306/1/5991, p. 7.
7 GARF 307/1/272, p. 27.
8 Reconquista de España, supplement, 18 July 1944.
9 Daniel Arasa, La invasión de los maquis, Barcelona, 2004; Richards, Un tiempo de silencio; Serrano, Maquis; Francisco Moreno, La resistencia armada.
10 Casanova, Morir, matar, sobrevivir, p. 227; Antonio Telez, Sabaté, London, 1974, pp. 171–8.
11 The JEL, Junta Española de Liberación.
CHAPTER 38: Lost Causes
1 Valentín González (El Campesino), Listen Comrades, London, 1952.
2 BA-MA RL35/34.
3 RGVA 33987/3/991, p. 68.
4 Gurney, p. 175.
5 Goriev to Moscow, 25 September 1936, quoted in Radosh and Habeck (eds), Spain Betrayed, London 2002, p. 60.
6 RGVA 33987/3/832, p. 107.
INDEX
A. Andreev (Soviet merchant ship)
Abad de Santillán, Diego
ABC
Abd-el-Krim
Abelló, Andreu i
Abyssinia
Acción Católica
Acción Nacionalista Vasca
Acción Popular
Action Franc¸aise
Adelante (socialist newspaper)
Admiral Graf Spee (German warship)
Admiral Scheer (German warship)
Africanistas
[incorporate into Army of Africa]
agriculture, reform of, wages, Basque, in nationalist zone, under Franco, see also collectives
Aguilera, Captain Gonzalo de, Count de Alba y Yeltes
Aguirre, José Antonio and Basque campaign
Aiguader, Artemi
Aiguader, Jaime
aircraft, supplied to Spain, in action over Madrid, in action over Jarama, in action in Basque country, in action over Guadarrama, in action over Brunete, in Ebro valley attack, Spanish pilots trained to fly, denied to non-communist commander, production in Spain, in action at Teruel,in Aragón offensive, in action over Ebro
AIRCRAFT TYPES:
Breda
Chatos
Dornier
Dornier
Fiat CR
Fiat G
Heinkel
Heinkel
Heinkel
Heinkel
Heinkel
Junkers
Junkers (Stukas)
Katiuska bombers
Messerschmitt
Moscas
Natasha bombers
Potez
Savoia-Marchetti
Savoia-Marchetti
Alba, Duke of, (Jacobo Stuart Fitzjames y Falcó)
Albacete, International Brigades base, Curto appointed commandant
Alberti, Rafael
Albertia, Mount
Albornoz y Liminiana, Álvaro de
Alcalá de Henares
Alcalá Zamora, Niceto as president, impeached
Alcañiz
Alcorcón
Alfambra, River
Alfonso XII, King, Alfonso XIII, King, driven from throne, hopes for restoration, assists nati
onalists, private yacht
Alfonso Carlos, Don, (Carlist pretender)
Algeciras
Algeciras, Conference of
Alhucemas
Alianza Obrera
Alianza Republicana
Alicante, political killings, Primo de Rivera held in, Negrín government in, Vega appointed governor, provides last republican refuge, refugees leave, prison
Allen, Jay
Allison-Peers, Professor E.
Almería
Almirante Cervera (nationalist cruiser)
Almirante Fernández (republican destroyer)
Almirante Valdés (republican destroyer)
Alonso, Bruno
Alonso, Colonel Martín
Alonso Vega, Colonel (later General) Camilo
Alto de los Leones
Álvarez Arenas, General Eliseo
Álvarez del Vayo, Julio, foreign minister, commissar- general, conflict with Largo, Caballero, controls censorship, protests to League of Nations, replaced, considers negotiation impossible, leaves Spain
Álvarez, Jesús
Amadeo of Savoy
Amado, Andrés,(minister of finance, American volunteers, mutiny
Amposta
anarchism
Andalucia, agriculture, anarchism, latifundia, general strike, disturbances, support for Carlists, military rising, political killings, commerce, under nationalist control, peasants, guerrilla operations, front, ‘white terror, stronghold ofseñoritos, development of trade
Andersson, Conny
Andradé, Benigno
Andújar
Anger, Karl
Annual, battle of (1921)
Anschluss
anti-clericalism
Antifascist Women’s Committee
Antón, Francisco
Antona, David
Antonov-Ovseyenko, Vladimir
Aragón, military rising, nationalists hold, clergy in, self- government, industry and agriculture, Council of, militias, political groupings, front, relations with republican government, offensives, destruction of collectives, guerrilla warfare
Aragon, Louis
Aranda Mata, Colonel (later General, secures Oviedo, on northern front, and battle of Teruel, and Aragón offensive, and advance on Valencia, and Franco regime