Viradha
While in the forest, a hideous demon called Viradha who had killed many animals carried Sita away. Ram and Lakshman confronted this demon and tried to kill him with their many weapons but none seemed to work on him. Viradha dropped Sita and picked Ram and Lakshman up as if they were children and carried them deep into the forest intent on eating them. The two brothers broke his arms. Realizing he could not be killed by weapons, they dug a pit and buried him alive. From the pit arose a Gandharva who identified himself as Tumburu cursed by Kuber, lord of the Yakshas, to become a Rakshasa until he was liberated by Ram.
Ram meets many animals in the forest who under his influence start behaving differently. Their actions are no longer motivated by the desire to survive. They perform selfless deeds, acts of generosity even at the cost of their own life.
Jatayu
Sita screamed for help as Ravana’s flying chariot made its way through the sky. Hearing this, the vulture Jatayu rushed to her rescue and blocked Ravana’s path. A great fight followed. Ravana finally raised his sword and chopped Jatayu’s wings. Jatayu tumbled down and could only watch helplessly as the chariot of the Rakshasa-king made its way south.
Ram treats Jatayu with great dignity. He addresses him as father and cremates him as he would have cremated his own father had he had the chance. Thus, under Ram’s influence even a vulture, a creature that feeds on the dead, transforms into a creature willing to die for others.
Another Rakshasa is so happy to be killed by Ram that he transforms into a helpful Gandharva who advises Ram to makes allies with the monkeys of Kishkindha in his search for Sita.
Kabandha
As Ram and Lakshman moved south in search of Sita, they were caught by a demon that had no head or neck or legs. Just two extremely long arms and a torso. On the torso were one eye and a vast mouth lined with sharp teeth. This was Kabandha, who was once a Gandharva. But he had challenged Indra to a duel and Indra had struck him so hard with his thunderbolt that his head and his legs got squashed into his torso. Ram and Lakshman raised their bows and shot several arrows at the demon forcing him to release them. A mortally wounded Kabandha begged the brothers to set him on fire. As soon as the brothers did that, Kabandha emerged from the flames, his Gandharva form restored. As he rose towards the heavens, he advised Ram to take the help of the monkey Sugriva who lived in the forest of Kishkindha near lake Pampa next to the hill known as Rishyamukha. Sugriva had a good knowledge of geography and would know where Ravana’s kingdom stood.
The kingdom of Kishkindha stands between Ayodhya and Lanka, between the land where the law of civilization is respected and the land where it is disregarded. The Vanaras thus stand between Manavas and Rakshasas.
In the beginning, the monkeys are aligned to the way of the jungle, like Ravana. Their leader Vali is described as mightier than Ravana. Once, Vali had caught Ravana by his tail and dragged him through Kishkindha like a dog on a leash. Like a creature aligned to the law of the jungle, Sugriva initially respects Ram only because Ram demonstrates that he is stronger than Ravana.
Display of Ram’s strength
Sugriva showed Ram the carcass of a giant buffalo called Dundhubi that had been killed by Vali. After killing it, Vali had kicked it so hard that it had landed upon Rishyamukha hill. As it hit the ground, drops of its blood fell on a Rishi called Matanga who was meditating there. Furious, the sage had cursed Vali never to step upon mount Rishyamukha. ‘If you can kick this carcass as far as Vali did, I will believe that you are as strong as Vali,’ said Sugriva. So Ram kicked the carcass and to the astonishment of all the monkeys, it went up into the air and fell far away right in front of where Vali held court. Sugriva then said that Vali could uproot seven palm trees with one hand. If Ram could do the same, he would be sure that Ram was as strong as Vali. Ram pulled out an arrow and shot it with such force that it penetrated through all seven trees. These two acts of strength and skill convinced Sugriva that Ram would indeed make a worthy ally.
After killing Vali, Ram demands that the monkeys change their ways and subscribe to the code of civilization and help the weak. In dharma, one is expected to do things selflessly and out of generosity. When the monkeys help Ram to find Sita, they are doing it partly out of a sense of obligation and partly out of selflessness. Sugriva is keeping his word to Ram. And this display of integrity is a sign that dharma has percolated into the monkey kingdom.
At the same time there is another monkey called Hanuman who, unlike Sugriva, is not bound by any obligation to serve Ram. He does so nevertheless. Hanuman is driven by devotion. He is selflessness personified. Hanuman even abandons the natural instincts of sex and violence—he becomes celibate and uses force only in the service of Ram. Hanuman thus represents the acme of transformation from beast to god. It is Hanuman who makes the perilous journey to Lanka and finds Sita.
Hanuman discovers that Ravana never forces himself upon Sita. Subplots of the Ramayana inform us that the demon-king is prevented from doing so either because of a curse or because Sita defends herself using the power of chastity. But at a more psychological level, a man like Ravana who loves to dominate those around him, would derive greater pleasure in making Sita come to him voluntarily in fear or in desire. Making a chaste wife abandon her faithful husband of her own free will would be for Ravana his ultimate triumph.
Ravana would like both Sita and Ram to become Rakshasas; Sita by submitting to her passions and Ram by submitting to his rage and insecurity. To his great annoyance, neither abandon dharma. Despite all charms and threats, Sita remains the faithful wife. And her husband turns out to be a gentle, dignified and upright warrior.
Ravana can let Sita go and avert war, but despite advice from his brothers, his wives, his mother and father, he clings to her like a child refusing to part with his toy. It is both a matter of attachment and pride, a refusal to compromise for the sake of peace.
Without any qualms, he sacrifices the lives of his sons and his brothers, lets them all die, lets Lanka burn, but refuses to submit. This stubborn refusal to let Sita go and willingness to destroy others for his self-indulgence, is an indicator of his ego.
After all his relatives and soldiers have been killed, Ravana finally steps into the battlefield. This is no brave and proud king. This is an insecure man, all of whose attempts at self-preservation have failed.
In some tellings, Ram rides into battle on Hanuman’s shoulders while in others Indra himself sends down his chariot for Ram. In some tellings, after a fierce battle, Ram releases a mighty weapon that strikes Ravana on his chest and kills him. In others, Vibhishana turns traitor and informs Ram of the secret of Ravana’s apparent invincibility. In some Ram-kathas, clearly inspired by folk tales, Ravana’s life is hidden in a wasp locked in a chest that Hanuman and Lakshman finally find after many adventures. The following retelling from the Telugu Ranganatha Ramayana shows how Ram refuses to take advantage of the secret information about Ravana’s strength given to him by Vibhishana on grounds that it violates the code of dharma.
Ravana’s navel
Ravana finally entered the battlefield. The monkeys and demons withdrew as Ram and Ravana came face to face. The gods gathered in the sky and the serpents arose under the earth to see this great battle. Both Ram and Ravana raised their bows. The fight was fierce. Ravana shot hundreds of arrows towards Ram. Ram shattered them with his own arrows before they even came near him. Ravana too destroyed arrows released by Ram. Ram’s arrows did manage to cut one of Ravana’s heads. But to his astonishment, the head replaced itself. ‘Why is it so?’ asked Ram. ‘Because,’ whispered Vibhishana, ‘he has hidden a pot of amrit, the nectar of immortality, in his navel. Shoot him in the navel.’ ‘To shoot below an enemy’s neck would be inappropriate,’ said Ram, quoting the rules of war. He shot yet another arrow towards Ravana’s chest. Hanuman then invoked his father, Vayu, the wind god, who caused a blast of breeze to suddenly appear on the battlefield and force Ram’s arrow to change direction towards Ravana’s navel.
Escaping all of Ravana’s attempts to stop it, the arrow pierced Ravana’s navel. The hidden pot of amrit was shattered and all the nectar poured out. Deprived of its power, Ravana became a mortal. Ram’s next arrow ripped through Ravana’s chest. Blood gushed out and he fell to the ground letting out a spine-chilling roar. The wind stopped, the waters stilled, and everyone watched spellbound as the great king of the Rakshasas collapsed. After a moment of stunned silence, the monkeys led by Hanuman let out a cheer. ‘Victory to Sita’s Ram! Victory to Sita’s Ram!’ Vibhishana rushed to his brother’s side and wept. But for Ravana’s obduracy, this tragic end could have been averted.
Symbolically, the end of Ravana is the end of the basest of human instincts. Having killed Ravana, Ram returns with Sita to Ayodhya in the north, his mission on earth accomplished.
Return to Ayodhya
The war was won. The period of exile was over. It was time to return home. Vibhishana, now king of Lanka, advised Ram, Lakshman and Sita to return on Ravana’s flying chariot. ‘You have suffered so much. Let your return be comfortable.’ And so Ram with Sita by his side along with Lakshman mounted the Pushpak viman. Hanuman requested that he be allowed to join them. Sugriva willingly gave his assent. As the Vanaras and Rakshasas cheered, the chariot rose to the sky and made its way north towards Ayodhya.
Ravana has ten pairs of eyes, which means he can see more. Ravana has ten sets of arms, which means he can do more. Ravana has ten heads, which means he can think more. And yet, this man with superior body and mind submits to the basest of passions. Despite having a full understanding of the soul indicated by his scholarship in the Vedas, despite knowing the futility of clinging to things material indicated by his adoration of Shiva, he submits to passion and surrenders to his ego. He embodies the difficult journey from the head to the heart—from knowing to becoming. This journey from knowing to becoming is the journey of transformation from Ravana to Ram.
8
Ayodhya’s King
King Ram
Chief of the Raghu clan
Uplifter of the fallen
Sita’s Ram
Also known as God and Allah
Bless everyone with wisdom
—From Vishnu Digambar Paluskar’s composition, Raghupati Raghav Raja Ram, based on a hymn by the seventeenth-century Marathi saint-poet Ramdas
Resolving conflict
Manu, the son of Surya, the sun god, was the first king of mankind; he established the code of civilization that Hindus call dharma.
Manu had two sons, Ikshavaku and Ila. Some say Ila was a daughter, who married Mercury, the son of Chandra, the moon god. Descendants of Ikshavaku are identified as belonging to the solar line of kings or Surya-vamsa while the descendants of Ila are known as Chandra-vamsa, the lunar line of kings. The two royal lines produced leaders of different characters. While the solar line of kings became renowned for their moral uprightness, the lunar line of kings were known for their moral ambiguity.
Ram is considered the jewel of the Surya-vamsa, the most upright of all solar kings. Ram is also known as Raghava or Raghupati, after Raghu, one of the most accomplished rulers of the solar dynasty. Raghu was Dashratha’s grandfather. Kalidasa in his work, Raghuvamsa, presents his vision of kingship through tales of Raghu’s clan.
Raghu was a great warrior. He protected the royal horse enabling his father to perform a hundred yagnas. After he became king, he conquered many lands. His kingdom stretched beyond every horizon. He was therefore acknowledged by all as emperor.
Raghu’s son, Aja, was as great a lover as his father was a warrior. Indumati, princess of Vidarbha, chose him as her husband. He loved her so much that when she died, he drowned himself in a river, unable to bear the separation.
But while Raghu establishes dominion over earth and Raghu’s son establishes dominion over the heart, Raghu’s father demonstrates the behaviour that forms the foundation of kingship.
Dilip
Dilip once did not show the respect due to the divine cow, Kamadhenu, and so was cursed with childlessness. To undo the damage, he swore to serve Kamadhenu’s calf, Nandini, for twenty-one days. On the last day of his service, a lion attacked Nandini. Dilip raised his bow to protect the calf but found he could not move his hands. Dilip begged the lion to spare Nandini. ‘What will I eat then?’ asked the lion. ‘Eat me,’ said Dilip. Impressed by this display of commitment and generosity, Nandini revealed that the lion’s attack was part of a test. She blessed Dilip that he would be the father of an illustrious son.
Dilip is punished for disrespecting Kamadhenu, the wish-fulfilling cow. Cows in Hindu mythology typically represent the earth. The earth’s ‘milk’ nourishes mankind; in exchange, man, led by kings, is supposed to take care of the earth as a cowherd takes care of a cow. Dilip, though king, disrespects the cow, and hence the earth. He is therefore found so unfit that he is prevented from producing progeny. The curse is lifted only when he learns the true meaning of kingship—to do what animals cannot do: overpower the law of the jungle, and give the weak an opportunity to thrive. While animals are driven by the instinct to survive, humans have the ability to overpower this instinct and make a sacrifice. The more we sacrifice, the less we are driven by self-preservation, the more ‘human’ we become. Dilip’s willingness to die for the cow he has sworn to protect makes him a true king in the eyes of the gods.
At a deeper level, the story of Dilip draws attention to the essential drawback of civilization. Civilization is essentially a manmade construct. It can, and does, interfere with nature. The cow is the lion’s natural food and so he has a right over her. It is human intervention that comes in the way. Man’s compassion makes no sense to the lion. Thus, a king has to realize that what may seem glorious in the context of civilization may not be so when seen through nature’s eyes. Dharma or the code of civilization will constantly be in conflict with our animal urges of sex and violence.
As king, Ram embodies the qualities of Dilip, Raghu and Aja—he has compassion, power and passion. When he wears the crown of his forefathers and sits on the throne of Ayodhya, he strives to establish the perfect kingdom, Ram Rajya, where dharma is upheld by all.
According to Manu, the most perfect society was one where everyone performed their duties determined by their varna or station in society and ashrama or stage in life. This was varna-ashrama-dharma, which sought to create a world that was more organized, predictable and manageable. A king was expected to ensure all his subjects respected this way of life. Ram never questioned varna-ashrama-dharma; he upheld the rules at the cost of personal happiness. That is why he is known as maryada purushottam, the greatest of all kings.
But Ram’s determination to uphold varna-ashrama-dharma under all circumstances, without questioning it, presented him with many ethical and moral dilemmas. The choices made by Ram, while being criticized by many, throw light on the inherent tension between manmade laws and natural instincts.
The story of Shambuka from the Uttara Ramayana, the final chapter of the Valmiki Ramayana, draws attention to the challenge posed to Ram by varna-dharma.
Shambuka
One day a Brahman couple came to Ram’s doorstep holding the dead body of their only son. ‘Why did my son die before me?’ asked the father. ‘When the young die before the old, does it not mean that dharma is not being upheld in a kingdom? And when dharma is not upheld, it means the king has failed in his duties. You, Ram, in failing to do your duty as king have caused the death of our son,’ said the anguished father. Stung by the accusation, Ram consulted the celestial sage Narada who informed him that a Shudra by the name of Shambuka was performing intense tapasya. As per the code of dharma, only Brahmans were allowed to perform spiritual practices such as tapasya in the first quarter of the world’s life cycle, Brahmans and Kshatriyas in the second quarter, Brahmans, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas in the third quarter and Shudras as well in the fourth quarter. As a Shudra, Shambuka was supposed to serve, not perform tapasya, in the Treta yuga to which Ram belonged. By doing s
o he was violating dharma and this had caused the Brahman’s son to die. The only way to make amends was to stop Shambuka’s tapasya. Ram hesitated. He asked Shambuka why he was performing tapasya. ‘To break free from the cycle of rebirths and attain moksha and be one with God,’ said the low-caste man. Ram then raised his sword and beheaded Shambuka. Instantly, Shambuka got what he desired: freedom from the cycle of rebirths and entry into Vishnu’s paradise, Vaikunth, as he had been killed by God himself. Further, since dharma had been restored, the Brahman couple’s son was restored to life.
At one level, the story of Shambuka can be seen as the reinforcement of caste hierarchy, the crushing of the free will of a man who refuses to submit to rigid codes of conduct imposed by society. At another level it can be seen as the story of a king who has to balance social rules that benefit the community and spiritual aspirations that benefit an individual.
Varna-dharma demanded that everyone fulfil their vocation unquestioningly, vocation being determined by one’s lineage. Shambuka breaks his varna-dharma. Ram knows that if Shambuka is allowed to do so, others will follow. This will destabilize society. Hence he reinforces the social structure of his time by beheading Shambuka. As king, he has no choice in this matter. He is supposed to uphold varna-dharma not interpret it.
But at the same time, Ram cannot ignore the spiritual aspiration of Shambuka. Ram faces a conflict between his role as king and his role as God. Must he respect social organization over spiritual aspiration? This conflict, in keeping with the function of mythological tales, is resolved with a possibility grounded in faith. Since Ram is God, his killing of a man leads not to death but to liberation, which is the ultimate goal of all living creatures in the Hindu scheme of things.