118. Author’s interview with Richard Stallman. See also K. C. Jones, “A Rare Glimpse into Richard Stallman’s World,” InformationWeek, Jan. 6, 2006; Richard Stallman interview, in Michael Gross, “Richard Stallman: High School Misfit, Symbol of Free Software, MacArthur-Certified Genius,” 1999, www.mgross.com/interviews/stallman1.html; Williams, Free as in Freedom, 26 and passim.
119. Richard Stallman, “The GNU Operating System and the Free Software Movement,” in Chris DiBona and Sam Ockman, editors, Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution (O’Reilly, 1999).
120. Author’s interview with Richard Stallman.
121. Richard Stallman, “The GNU Project,” http://www.gnu.org/gnu/thegnuproject.html.
122. Williams, Free as in Freedom, 75.
123. Richard Stallman, “The GNU Manifesto,” http://www.gnu.org/gnu/manifesto.html.
124. Richard Stallman, “What Is Free Software?” and “Why Open Source Misses the Point of Free Software,” https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/.
125. Richard Stallman, “The GNU System,” https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/.
126. Interview with Richard Stallman, conducted by David Betz and Jon Edwards, BYTE, July 1986.
127. “Linus Torvalds,” Linux Information Project, http://www.linfo.org/linus.html.
128. Linus Torvalds with David Diamond, Just for Fun (HarperCollins, 2001), 4.
129. Torvalds and Diamond, Just for Fun, 74, 4, 17; Michael Learmonth, “Giving It All Away,” San Jose Metro, May 8, 1997.
130. Torvalds and Diamond, Just for Fun, 52, 55, 64, 78, 72.
131. Linus Torvalds pronouncing “Linux”: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Linus-linux.ogg.
132. Learmonth, “Giving It All Away.”
133. Torvalds and Diamond, Just for Fun, 58.
134. Linus Torvalds, “Free Minix-like Kernel Sources for 386-AT,” posting to Newsgroups: comp.os.minix, Oct. 5, 1991, http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~awb/linux.history.html.
135. Torvalds and Diamond, Just for Fun, 87, 93, 97, 119.
136. Gary Rivlin, “Leader of the Free World,” Wired, November 2003.
137. Yochai Benkler, The Penguin and the Leviathan: How Cooperation Triumphs over Self-Interest (Crown, 2011); Yochai Benkler, “Coase’s Penguin, or, Linux and the Nature of the Firm,” Yale Law Journal (2002), http://soc.ics.uci.edu/Resources/bibs.php?793.
138. Eric Raymond, The Cathedral and the Bazaar (O’Reilly Media, 1999), 30.
139. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (originally published 1835–40; Packard edition), Kindle location 3041.
140. Torvalds and Diamond, Just for Fun, 122, 167, 120, 121.
141. Richard Stallman interview, Reddit, July 29, 2010, http://www.redditblog.com/2010/07/rms-ama.html.
142. Richard Stallman, “What’s in a Name?” https://www.gnu.org/gnu/why-gnu-linux.html.
143. Torvalds and Diamond, Just for Fun, 164.
144. Linus Torvalds blog post, “Black and White,” Nov. 2, 2008, http://torvalds-family.blogspot.com/2008/11/black-and-white.html.
145. Torvalds and Diamond, Just for Fun, 163.
146. Raymond, The Cathedral and the Bazaar, 1.
CHAPTER TEN: ONLINE
1. Lawrence Landweber email to the author, Feb. 5, 2014.
2. Ray Tomlinson, “The First Network Email,” http://openmap.bbn.com/~tomlinso/ray/firstemailframe.html.
3. Larry Brilliant email to the author, Feb. 14, 2014.
4. Larry Brilliant interview, Wired, Dec. 20, 2007.
5. Larry Brilliant interview, Wired, Dec. 20, 2007.
6. Katie Hafner, The Well (Carroll & Graf, 2001), 10.
7. Hafner, The Well, 30; Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture, 145.
8. Howard Rheingold, The Virtual Community (Perseus, 1993), 9.
9. Tom Mandel, “Confessions of a Cyberholic,” Time, Mar. 1, 1995. At that point, Mandel knew he was dying, and he asked his editors at Time—Phil Elmer-DeWitt, Dick Duncan, and myself—if he could write a farewell reflection about the online world.
10. Tom Mandel, posting on The WELL, http://www.well.com/~cynsa/tom/tom13.html. See also “To Our Readers” [signed by the publisher Elizabeth Long but written by Phil Elmer-DeWitt], Time, Apr. 17, 1995.
11. This section draws from interviews with Steve Case, Jim Kimsey, and Jean Case; Julius Duscha, “For Computers, a Marrying Sam,” New York Times, Dec. 25, 1977; Michael Banks, On the Way to the Web (APress, 2008, locations refer to the Kindle edition); Kara Swisher, AOL.com (Random House, 1998); Alec Klein, Stealing Time (Simon & Schuster, 2003). Steve Case, a longtime friend and colleague, provided comments and corrections on an early draft.
12. Klein, Stealing Time, 11.
13. Banks, On the Way to the Web, 792, 743.
14. Banks, On the Way to the Web, 602, 1467.
15. Author’s interview with Steve Case; Banks, On the Way to the Web, 1503; Swisher, AOL.com, 27.
16. Steve Case talk, JP Morgan Technology Conference, San Francisco, May 1, 2001.
17. Nina Munk, Fools Rush In (Collins, 2004), 73.
18. Author’s interview with Steve Case.
19. Swisher, AOL.com, 25.
20. Steve Case speech, Stanford, May 25, 2010.
21. Steve Case speech, Stanford, May 25, 2010.
22. Author’s interview with Steve Case.
23. Steve Case speech, Stanford, May 25, 2010.
24. Swisher, AOL.com, 27.
25. Author’s interview with Steve Case.
26. Author’s interview with Steve Case; Case email to author and comments on first draft published on Medium. Accounts differ on whether or not von Meister was eager to hire Steve Case or whether Dan Case pushed him to do it. Swisher, AOL.com, 28, says it was the former. Banks, On the Way to the Web, 1507, says it was the latter. There are probably elements of truth in both versions.
27. Author’s interview with Jim Kimsey.
28. Swisher, AOL.com, 53.
29. Swisher, AOL.com, 48.
30. Author’s interviews with Steve Case, Steve Wozniak.
31. Steve Case speech, Stanford, May 25, 2010.
32. Author’s interview with Steve Case.
33. Author’s interview with Steve Case.
34. Steve Case oral history, conducted by Walter Isaacson, 2013, the Riptide Project, Harvard, http://www.niemanlab.org/riptide/person/steve-case/. I participated in this oral history project on the digital disruption of journalism, which was curated by John Huey, Paul Sagan, and Martin Nisenholtz.
35. Steve Case oral history, “How the Web Was Won,” Vanity Fair, July 2008.
36. Author’s interview with Jim Kimsey.
37. Steve Case speech, Stanford, May 25, 2010.
38. Dave Fischer post, newsgroup: alt.folklore.computers, Jan. 25, 1994, https://groups.google.com/forum/#!original/alt.folklore.computers/wF4CpYbWuuA/jS6ZOyJd10sJ.
39. Wendy Grossman, Net.Wars (NYU, 1977), 33.
40. Author’s interview with Al Gore.
41. Al Gore interview with Wolf Blitzer, “Late Edition,” CNN, Mar. 9, 1999, http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/stories/1999/03/09/president.2000/transcript.gore/.
42. Robert Kahn and Vinton Cerf, “Al Gore and the Internet,” an email to Declan McCullaugh and others, Sept. 28, 2000, http://www.politechbot.com/p-01394.html.
43. Newt Gingrich, speech to the American Political Science Association, Sept. 1, 2000.
CHAPTER ELEVEN: THE WEB
1. Tim Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web (HarperCollins, 1999), 4. See also Mark Fischetti, “The Mind Behind the Web,” Scientific American, Mar. 12, 2009.
2. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.
3. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.
4. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.
5. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.
6. Tim Berners-Lee interview, Academy of Achievement, June 22, 2007.
7. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.
8. Author’s inte
rview with Tim Berners-Lee.
9. Enquire Within Upon Everything (1894), http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10766/10766-h/10766-h.htm.
10. Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, 1.
11. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.
12. Tim Berners-Lee interview, Academy of Achievement, June 22, 2007.
13. Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, 10.
14. Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, 4.
15. Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, 14.
16. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.
17. Tim Berners-Lee interview, Academy of Achievement, June 22, 2007.
18. Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, 15.
19. John Naish, “The NS Profile: Tim Berners-Lee,” New Statesman, Aug. 15, 2011.
20. Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, 16, 18.
21. Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, 61.
22. Tim Berners-Lee, “Information Management: A Proposal,” CERN, Mar. 1989, http://www.w3.org/History/1989/proposal.html.
23. James Gillies and Robert Cailliau, How the Web Was Born (Oxford, 2000), 180.
24. Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, 26.
25. Gillies and Cailliau, How the Web Was Born, 198.
26. Gillies and Cailliau, How the Web Was Born, 190.
27. Robert Cailliau interview, “How the Web Was Won,” Vanity Fair, July 2008.
28. Gillies and Cailliau, How the Web Was Born, 234.
29. Tim Smith and François Flückiger, “Licensing the Web,” CERN, http://home.web.cern.ch/topics/birth-web/licensing-web.
30. Tim Berners-Lee, “The World Wide Web and the ‘Web of Life,’ ” 1998, http://www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee/UU.html.
31. Tim Berners-Lee, posting to the Newsgroup alt.hypertext, Aug. 6, 1991, http://www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee/1991/08/art-6484.txt.
32. Nick Bilton, “As the Web Turns 25, Its Creator Talks about Its Future,” New York Times, Mar. 11, 2014.
33. Gillies and Cailliau, How the Web Was Born, 203. See also Matthew Lasar, “Before Netscape,” Ars Technica, Oct. 11, 2011.
34. Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, 56.
35. Gillies and Cailliau, How the Web Was Born, 217.
36. Author’s interview with Marc Andreessen.
37. Author’s interview with Marc Andreessen.
38. Robert Reid, A rchitects of the Web (Wiley, 1997), 7.
39. Gillies and Cailliau, How the Web Was Born, 239; alt.hypertext Newsgroup, Friday, Jan. 29, 1993, 12:22:43 GMT, http://www.jmc.sjsu.edu/faculty/rcraig/mosaic.txt.
40. Author’s interview with Marc Andreessen.
41. Gillies and Cailliau, How the Web Was Born, 240.
42. Author’s interview with Marc Andreessen.
43. Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, 70; author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.
44. Author’s interview with Marc Andreessen.
45. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.
46. Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, 70.
47. Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, 65.
48. Ted Nelson, “Computer Paradigm,” http://xanadu.com.au/ted/TN/WRITINGS/TCOMPARADIGM/tedCompOneLiners.html.
49. Jaron Lanier interview, by Eric Allen Bean, Nieman Journalism Lab, May 22, 2013.
50. John Huey, Martin Nisenholtz, and Paul Sagan, “Riptide,” Harvard Kennedy School, http://www.niemanlab.org/riptide/.
51. Author’s interview with Marc Andreessen.
52. Author’s interview with Tim Berners-Lee.
53. Author’s interview with Marc Andreessen.
54. John Markoff, “A Free and Simple Computer Link,” New York Times, Dec. 8, 1993.
55. This section is primarily based on my interviews with Justin Hall and his own postings at http://www.links.net/.
56. Justin Hall, “Justin’s Links,” http://www.links.net/vita/web/story.html.
57. Author’s interviews with Justin Hall, Joan Hall.
58. Author’s interview with Howard Rheingold; Howard Rheingold, The Virtual Community (Perseus, 1993).
59. Author’s interviews with Justin Hall, Howard Rheingold; Gary Wolf, Wired—A Romance (Random House, 2003), 110.
60. Scott Rosenberg, Say Everything (Crown, 2009), 24.
61. Rosenberg, Say Everything, 44.
62. Justin Hall, “Exposing Myself,” posted by Howard Rheingold, http://www.well.com/~hlr/jam/justin/justinexposing.html.
63. Author’s interview with Arianna Huffington.
64. Clive Thompson, Smarter Than You Think (Penguin, 2013), 68.
65. Hall, “Exposing Myself.”
66. Author’s interview with Ev Williams. This section also draws from the Ev Williams interview in Jessica Livingston, Founders at Work (Apress, 2007), 2701 and passim; Nick Bilton, Hatching Twitter (Portfolio, 2013), 9 and passim; Rosenberg, Say Everything, 104 and passim; Rebecca Mead, “You’ve Got Blog,” New Yorker, Nov. 13, 2000.
67. Dave Winer, “Scripting News in XML,” Dec. 15, 1997, http://scripting.com/davenet/1997/12/15/scriptingNewsInXML.html.
68. Livingston, Founders at Work, 2094.
69. Livingston, Founders at Work, 2109, 2123, 2218.
70. Meg Hourihan, “A Sad Kind of Day,” http://web.archive.org/web/20010917033719/http://www.megnut.com/archive.asp?which=2001_02_01_archive.inc; Rosenberg, Say Everything, 122.
71. Ev Williams, “And Then There Was One,” Jan. 31, 2001, http://web.archive.org/web/20011214143830/http://www.evhead.com/longer/2200706_essays.asp.
72. Livingston, Founders at Work, 2252.
73. Livingston, Founders at Work, 2252.
74. Williams, “And Then There Was One.”
75. Dan Bricklin, “How the Blogger Deal Happened,” blog posting, Apr. 15, 2001, http://danbricklin.com/log/blogger.htm; Dan Bricklin, Bricklin on Technology (Wiley, 2009), 206.
76. Livingston, Founders at Work, 2289, 2302.
77. Author’s interview with Ev Williams.
78. Author’s interview with Ev Williams.
79. Author’s interview with Ev Williams.
80. Andrew Lih, The Wikipedia Revolution (Hyperion, 2009), 1111. See also Ward Cunningham and Bo Leuf, The Wiki Way: Quick Collaboration on the Web (Addison-Wesley, 2001); Ward Cunningham, “HyperCard Stacks,” http://c2.com/~ward/HyperCard/; Ward Cunningham, keynote speech, Wikimania, Aug. 1, 2005.
81. Ward Cunningham, “Invitation to the Pattern List,” May 1, 1995, http://c2.com/cgi/wiki? InvitationToThePatternsList.
82. Ward Cunningham, correspondence on the etymology of wiki, http://c2.com/doc/etymology.html.
83. Tim Berners-Lee interview, Riptide Project, Schornstein Center, Harvard, 2013.
84. Kelly Kazek, “Wikipedia Founder, Huntsville Native Jimmy Wales, Finds Fame Really Cool,” News Courier (Athens, AL), Aug. 12, 2006.
85. Author’s interview with Jimmy Wales.
86. Author’s interview with Jimmy Wales; Lih, The Wikipedia Revolution, 585.
87. Marshall Poe, “The Hive,” Atlantic, Sept. 2006.
88. Jimmy Wales interview, conducted by Brian Lamb, C-SPAN, Sept. 25, 2005.
89. Author’s interview with Jimmy Wales; Eric Raymond, “The Cathedral and the Bazaar,” first presented in 1997, reprinted in The Cathedral and the Bazaar (O’Reilly Media, 1999).
90. Richard Stallman, “The Free Universal Encyclopedia and Learning Resource” (1999), http://www.gnu.org/encyclopedia/free-encyclopedia.html.
91. Larry Sanger, “The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia,” Slashdot, http://beta.slashdot.org/story/56499; and O’Reilly Commons, http://commons.oreilly.com/wiki/index.php/Open_Sources_2.0/Beyond_Open_Source:_Collaboration_and_Community/The_Early_History_of_Nupedia_and_Wikipedia:_A_Memoir.
92. Larry Sanger, “Become an Editor or Peer Reviewer!” Nupedia, http://archive.is/IWDNq.
93. Author’s interview with Jimmy Wales; Lih, The Wikipedia Revolution, 960.
94. Author’s interview with Jimmy Wales.
95. Larry Sanger, “Origins of Wikipedia,” Sanger user page, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User
:Larry_Sanger/Origins_of_Wikipedia;, Lih The Wikipedia Revolution, 1049.
96. Ben Kovitz, “The Conversation at the Taco Stand,” Kovitz user page, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:BenKovitz.
97. Jimmy Wales, “Re: Sanger’s Memoirs” thread, Apr. 2005, http://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikipedia-l/2005-April/021463.html.
98. Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger, “Re: Sanger’s Memoirs” thread, Apr. 2005, http://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikipedia-l/2005-April/021460.html, http://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikipedia-l/2005-April/021469.html, and subsequent. See also Larry Sanger, “My Role in Wikipedia,” http://larrysanger.org/roleinwp.html; “User:Larry Sanger/Origins of Wikipedia,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Larry_Sanger/Origins_of_Wikipedia; “History of Wikipedia” and its talk page, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Wikipedia, along with Jimmy Wales edit changes to the article, http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jimmy_Wales&diff=next&oldid=29849184; Talk: Bomis, revisions made by Jimmy Wales, http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?diff=11139857.
99. Kovitz, “The Conversation at the Taco Stand.”
100. Larry Sanger, “Let’s Make a Wiki,” Nupedia message thread, Jan. 10, 2001, http://archive.is/yovNt.
101. Lih, The Wikipedia Revolution, 1422.
102. Clay Shirky, “Wikipedia—An Unplanned Miracle,” Guardian, Jan. 14, 2011; see also Clay Shirky, Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing without Organizations (Penguin, 2008) and Cognitive Surplus: Creativity and Generosity in a Connected Age (Penguin, 2010).
103. Author’s interview with Jimmy Wales.
104. Larry Sanger, “Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism,” Dec. 31, 2004, www.LarrySanger.org.
105. Wikipedia press release, Jan. 15, 2002, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Press_releases/January_2002.
106. Author’s interview with Jimmy Wales.
107. Shirky, “Wikipedia—An Unplanned Miracle.”
108. Yochai Benkler, “Coase’s Penguin, or, Linux and the Nature of the Firm,” Yale Law Journal (2002), http://soc.ics.uci.edu/Resources/bibs.php?793; Yochai Benkler, The Penguin and the Leviathan: How Cooperation Triumphs over Self-Interest (Crown, 2011).