85. Op. cit., p. 177.
86. Philosophy of Right, Preface; Encyclopedia, no. 465 in 2nd ed.
87. Op. cit., loc. cit.
88. Ibid., pp. 177 and 185, note.
89. Ibid., p. 188.
90. Jenenser Logik, p. 204.
91. Koyré, op. cit., p. 183, quoting Hegel, Jenenser Realphilosophie, ed. Johannes Hoffmeister, Leipzig, 1932, vol. II, pp. 10 ff.
92. Koyré, op. cit., p. 177.
93. Plato, Republic, 329b-c.
94. Koyré, op. cit., p. 166.
95. Ibid., p. 174.
96. Koyré, "La terminologie hégélienne," in op. cit., p. 213.
97. Martin Heidegger, Sem und Zeit, no. 65, p. 326.
98. Koyré, op. cit., p. 188, quoting Phänomenologie des Geistes.
99. Koyré, op. cit., p. 183, quoting Jenenser Realphilosophie.
100. Koyré, "Hegel à léna," in op. cit., p. 188.
101. Koyré, op. cit., p. 185, quoting Jenenser Realphilosophie.
102. The passage in Plotinus is a commentary on Plato's Timaeus, 37c-38b. It occurs in Ennead, III, 7, 11: "On Time and Eternity." I have used the translation by A. H. Armstrong in the Loeb Classical Library, London, 1967, and Emile Bréhier's translation into French in the bilingual edition of the Ennéades, Paris, 1924–38.
103. An excellent and detailed report of the literature about Hegel is now available in Michael Theunissen, Die Verwirklichung der Vernunft. Zur Theorie-Praxis-Diskussion im Anschluss an Hegel, Beiheft 6 of the Philosophische Rundschau, Tübingen, 1970. The main works for our context are: Franz Rosenzweig, Hegel und der Staat, 2 vols. (1920), Aalen, 1962; Joachim Ritter, Hegel und die französische Revolution, Frankfurt/ Main, 1965; Manfred Riedel, Theorie und Praxis im Denken Hegels, Stuttgart, 1965.
104. The Philosophy of History, trans. J. Sibree, New York, 1956, pp. 446, 447; Philosophie der Weltgeschichte, Hälfte II, "Die Germanische Welt," Lasson ed., Leipzig, 1923, p. 926.
105. In a letter to Schelling of April 16, 1795. Briefe, Leipzig, 1887, vol. I, p. 15.
106. Quoted from Theunissen, op. cit.
107. The Philosophy of History, p. 442.
108. Ibid., p. 446.
109. Ibid., pp. 30 and 36.
110. Ibid., p. 442.
111. Ibid., p. 443. Author's translation.
112. Ibid., p. 36.
113. Ibid., p. 79. Author's translation; cf. Werke, Berlin, 1840, vol. IX, p. 98.
114. Op. cit., p. 189.
115. The Phenomenology of Mind, trans. J. B. Baillie (1910), New York, 1964, p. 803.
116. Koyré, op. cit., p. 164, quoting Encyclopedia, no. 258.
117. Hegel, The Phenomenology of Mind, pp. 801, 807–808. Italics added.
118. Ibid., p. 808.
119. "Uberwindung der Metaphysik," in Vorträge und Aufsätze, Pfullingen, 1954, vol. I, sect, xxü, p. 89.
120. Hegel, Science of Logic, trans. W. H. Johnston and L. G. Struthers, London, New York, 1966, vol. I, p. 118.
121. Toward a Genealogy of Morals (1887), no. 28.
122. Heidegger, "Uberwindung der Metaphysik," op. cit., sect, xxiii, p. 89.
123. Science of Logic, vol. I, pp. 95, 97, 85.
Chapter II
1. Concept of the Mind, pp. 62 ff.
2. See the marvelously illuminating study by E. H. Gombrich, Art and Illusion, New York, 1960.
3. De Anima, 433a21–24 and Nicomachean Ethics, 1139a35.
4. For this and the following, see De Anima, bk. Ill, chaps. 9, 10.
5. Meister Eckhart, ed. Franz Pfeiffer, Göttingen, 1914, pp. 551–552.
6. Quoted from Werner Jaeger, Aristotle, London, 1962, p. 249. Jaeger also notices that "the third Book On the Soul," from which I have quoted here, "stands out as peculiarly Platonic" (p. 332).
7. Nicomachean Ethics, 1168b6.
8. Ibid., 1166b5–25.
9. See the last lines of Antigone.
10. Nicomachean Ethics, 1139bl-4.
11. Quoted from Andreas Graeser, Plotinus and the Stoics, Leiden, 1972, p. 119.
12. Nicomachean Ethics, 1139a31–33, 1139b4–5.
13. Ibid., 1134a21.
14. Ibid., 1112bl2.
15. Eudemian Ethics, 1226al0.
16. Ibid., 1223bl0.
17. Ibid., 1224a31–1224bl5.
18. Ibid., 1226bl0.
19. Ibid., 1226b11-12. Cf. Nicomachean Ethics, 1112b11-18.
20. For an excellent discussion of Will and Freedom in Kant, see Lewis White Beck, A Commentary on Kant's Critique of Practical Reason, Chicago, London, 1960, chap. XI.
21. Op. cit., p. 551.
22. Hans Jonas, Augustin und das paulinische Frciheitsproblem, 2nd ed., Göttingen, 1965; see especially app. Ill, published as "Philosophical Meditation on the Seventh Chapter of Paul's Epistle to the Romans" in The Future of Our Religious Past, ed. James M. Robinson, London, New York, 1971, pp. 333–350.
23. Metamorphoses, bk. VII, 11. 20–21: "Video meliora proboque, /deteriora sequor."
24. Chagigah II, 1. Quoted from Hans Blumenberg, Paradigmen zu einer Metaphorologie, Bonn, 1960, p. 26, n. 38.
25. Bk. XI, chaps, xii and xxx.
26. See Discourses, bk. II, chap. xix.
27. Fragments, 23.
28. The Manual, 23 and 33.
29. Discourses, bk. II, chap. 16.
30. All the works we have, including the Discourses, are "apparently almost a stenographic record of his lectures and informal discussions taken down and compiled by one of his pupils, Arrian." See Whitney J. Oates, General Introduction to his The Stoic and Epicurean Philosophers, Modem Library, New York, 1940, whose translation I often follow.
31. Discourses, bk. I, chap. xv.
32. Ibid., bk. II, chap, xviii.
33. Ibid., bk. I, chap, xxvii.
34. Ibid., bk. II, chap. i.
35. Ibid., bk. II, chap. xvi.
36. The Manual, 23 and 33.
37. Discourses, bk. II, chap. xvi.
38. Ibid., bk. I, chap. i.
39. Ibid.
40. Ibid., bk. I, chap. xvii.
41. Physics, 188b30.
42. Discourses, bk. I, chap, xvii
43. Ibid., bk. II, chap. xi.
44. Ibid., bk. II, chap. x.
45. Ibid., bk. Ill, chap. xiv.
46. The Manual, 1.
47. Fragments, 1.
48. Ibid., 8.
49. Discourses, bk. I, chap. i.
50. The Manual, 30.
51. Discourses, bk. I, chap. xxv.
52. Ibid., bk. I, chap. ix.
53. Ibid., bk. I, chap. xxv. Italics added.
54. Le Mythe de Sisyphe, Paris, 1942.
55. De Trinitate, bk. XIII, vii, 10.
56. Ibid., viii, 11.
57. Discourses, bk. II, chap. x.
58. Ibid., bk. II, chap, xvii.
59. The Manual, 8.
60. Fragments, 8.
61. In De Ltbero Arbitrio, bk. Ill, v-viii.
62. Discourses, bk. II, chap, xviii.
63. Ibid., bk. II, chap. viii.
64. The Manual, 51, 48.
65. Frag. 149; Enarrationes in Psalmos, Patrologiae Latino, J.-P. Migne, Paris, 1854–66, vol. 37, CXXXIV, 16.
66. Paul Oskar Kristeller, a bit more cautiously, calls Augustine "probably the greatest Latin philosopher of classical antiquity." See Renaissance Concepts of Man, Harper Torchbooks, New York, 1972, p. 149.
67. On the Trinity, bk. 13, iv, 7: "Beati certe, inquit [Cicero] omnes esse volumus."
68. "O vitae philosophia dux," Tusculanae Disputationes, bk. V, chap. 2.
69. Quoted with approbation from a Roman writer (Varro) in The City of Cod, bk. XIX, i, 3: "Nulla est homini causa philos-ophandi nisi ut beatus sit."
70. For the importance and depth of this question, see especially On the Trinity, bk. X, chaps iii and viii: "How the mind may seek and find itself is a remarkable question: whither does it go in order to seek, and whence does it come in order to find?"
71. C
onfessions, bk. XI, especially chaps, xiv and xxii.
72. Peter Brown, Augustine of Hippo, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1967, p. 123.
73. Ibid., p. 112.
74. On Free Choice of the Will, bk. I, chaps, i and ii.
75. Ibid., chap, xvi, 117 and 118.
76. Confessions, bk. VIII, chap. v.
77. Ibid., chap. viii.
78. A detailed explanation deriving voluntas from velle and potestas from posse occurs in The Spirit and the Letter, arts. 52–58, a late work, concerned with the question "Is faith itself placed in our power?" in Morgenbesser and Walsh, op. cit., p. 22.
79. On Free Choice of the Will, bk. Ill, chap, iii, 27; cf. ibid., bk. I, chap, xii, 86 and Retractationes, bk. I, chap, ix, 3.
80. Epistolae, 177, 5; On Free Choice of the Witt, bk. Ill, chap, i, 8–10; chap, iii, 33.
81. See Etienne Gilson, Jean Duns Scot: Introduction à ses positions fondamentales, Paris, 1952, p. 657.
82. On Free Choice of the Will, bk. Ill, chap. xxv.
83. Ibid., chap. xvii.
84. On Grace and Free Will, chap. xliv.
85. Confessions, bk. VIII, chap, iii, 6–8.
86. On Free Choice of the Will, bk. Ill, chaps, vi-viii; Lehmann, op. cit., sent. 14, p. 16.
87. On Free Choice of the Will, bk. Ill, chap. v.
88. "Precious Five," Collected Poems, New York, 1976, p. 450.
89. Confessions, bk. VIII, chap. viii.
90. Ibid., chap. ix.
91. Ibid., chaps, ix and x.
92. Ibid., chap. x.
93. Epistolae, 157, 2, 9; 55, 10, 18; Confessions, bk. XIII, chap, ix.
94. In An Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy, "On the Freedom of the Will" (1867), quoted from Morgenbesser and Walsh, op. cit., pp. 57–69. Italics added.
95. Confessions, bk. Ill, chap, vi, 11.
96. Bk. IX, chap. iv.
97. Bk. XIII, chap. xi.
98. Bk. X, chap, xi, 18.
99. Ibid., bk. XI, chap, iii, 6.
100. Ibid., chap, ii, 2.
101. Ibid., chap, iv, 7.
102. Ibid., chap, v, 8.
103. Ibid., bk. XII, chap, iii, 3.
104. Efrem Bettoni, Duns Scotus: The Basic Principles of His Philosophy, trans. Bernardine Bonansea, Washington, 1961, p. 158. Italics added.
105. On the Trinity, bk. XV, chap, xxi, 41.
106. Ibid., bk. VIII, chap. x.
107. Ibid., bk. X, chap, viii, 11.
108. Ibid., bk. XI, chap, ii, 5.
109. Ibid., bk. X, chap, v, 7. Italics added.
110. Ibid., chap, xi, 17.
111. Ibid., bk. XI, chap, v, 9.
112. Ibid., bk. X, chap, v, 7.
113. Ibid., chap, viii, 11.
114. Ibid., chap, v, 7. Cf. bk. XII, chaps, xii, xiv, xv.
115. Ibid., bk. XII, chap, xiv, 23.
116. Ibid., bk. X, chap, xi, 18.
117. Ibid., bk. XI, chap, xi, 18.
118. The City of God, bk. XI, chap, xxviii.
119. William H. Davis, The Freewill Question, The Hague, 1971, p. 29.
120. In its extreme form, as held by Augustine at the end of his life, the doctrine maintains that children are eternally damned if they die before receiving the sacrament of baptism. This cannot be justified by referring to Paul because these children cannot yet have known faith. Only after grace has materialized in a sacrament, dispensed by the Church, and when faith has been institutionalized, can this version of predestination be justified. Institutionalized grace is no longer a datum of consciousness—an experience of the inward man—and therefore not interesting for philosophy; nor is it a matter of faith, strictly speaking. No doubt, this is among the most important political factors in the Christian creed, with which we are not concerned here.
121. The City of God, bk. XI, chap. xxi.
122. Confessions, bk. XI, chap. xiv.
123. Ibid., chaps, xx and xxviii.
124. Ibid., chap. xxi.
125. Ibid., chaps, xxiv, xxvi, and xxviii.
126. See especially bks. XI-XIII of The City of God.
127. Ibid., bk. XII, chap. xiv.
128. Ibid., bk. XI, chap. vi.
129. Ibid., bk. XII, chap. xiv.
130. Ibid., chaps, xxi and xx.
131. Ibid., bk. XI, chap, xxxii.
132. Ibid., bk. XII, chaps, xxi and xxii.
133. Ibid., chap. vi.
134. Ibid., bk. XIII, chap. x.
135. B478.
Chapter III
1. The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy, pp. 207 and 70.
2. Summa Theologica, I, qu. 82, a. 1.
3. Ibid., qu. 81, a. 3, and qu. 83, a. 4.
4. Duns Scotus as quoted by Gilson, The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy, p. 52.
5. Gilson, The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy, p. 437.
6. In "What Is Authority" in Between Past and Future, I tried to show the importance of the past for any strictly Roman understanding of politics. See especially the explication of the Roman triad: auctoritas, religio, traditio.
7. De Civitate Dei, bk. XII, chap. xiv.
8. Op. cit., I, qu. 5, a. 4.
9. Ibid., I-II, qu. 15, a. 3.
10. Ibid., I, qu. 5, a. 1, and I-II, qu. 18, a. 1.
11. Ibid., I, qu. 48, a. 3.
12. Ibid., qu. 5, a. 5; qu. 49, a. 3.
13. Quoted in ibid., qu. 49, a. 3.
14. History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle Ages, New York, 1955, p. 375.
15. Summa Theologica, I, qu. 75, a. 6.
16. Ibid., qu. 81, a. 3.
17. Ibid., qu. 82, a. 4.
18. Gilson, History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle Ages, p. 766.
19. Summa Theologica, I, qu. 29, a. 3, Resp.
20. Augustine, De Civitate Dei, bk. XII, chap. xxi.
21. Summa Theologica, I, qu. 82, a. 4.
22. Ibid., qu. 83, a.3.
23. Raised by Thomas in the Summa contra Gentiles, III, 26.
24. Quoted from Wilhelm Kahl, Die Lehre vom Primat des Wil-lens bei Augustin, Duns Scotus und Descartes, Strassburg, 1886, p. 61 n.
25. The Divine Comedy, Paradiso, Canto xviii, line 109 f., trans. Laurence Binyon, New York, 1949.
26. Quoted from Gustav Siewerth, Thomas von Aquin, Die menschliche Willensfreiheit. Texte ... ausgewählt & mit einer Einleitung versehen, Düsseldorf, 1954, p. 62.
27. Summa Theologica, I, qu. 79, a. 2.
28. Ibid., I-II, qu. 9, a. 1.
29. Nicomachean Ethics, bk. X, 1178bl8–21; 1177b5–6.
30. Summa Theologica, I-II, qu. 10, a. 2; Summa contra Gentües, loc. cit.
31. Metaphysics, 1072b3.
32. Summa Theologica, I-II, qu. 11, a. 3. Cf. Commentary on St. Pauls Epistle to the Gdatians, chap. 5, lec. 3.
33. Grundlegung zur Metaphysik des Sitten, Akademie Ausgabe, vol. IV, 1911, p. 429.
34. See, for instance, sect. IV of the bilingual edition of Duns Scotus: Philosophical Writings, ed. and trans. Allan Wolter, Edinburgh, London, 1962, pp. 83 ff.
35. Quoted from Kahl, op. cit., pp. 97 and 99.
36. See Efrem Bettoni, "The Originality of the Scotistic Synthesis," in John K. Ryan and Bemardine M. Bonansea, John Duns Scotus, 1265–1965, Washington, 1965, p. 34.
37. Duns Scotus, p. 191. In a different context, however, though in the same book (p. 144), Bettoni maintains that "to a great extent ... the originality of the Scotistic demonstration [of the existence of God lies] in being a synthesis of St. Thomas and St. Anselm."
38. In addition to the items quoted above, I have used chiefly: Ernst Stadter, Psychologie und Metaphysik der menschlichen Freiheit, München, Paderborn, Wien, 1971; Ludwig Walter, Das Glaubensverständnis bei Johannes Scotus, München, Paderborn, Wien, 1968; Etienne Gilson, Jean Duns Scot; Johannes Auer, Die menschliche Willensfreiheit im Lehr-system des Thomas von Aquin und Johannes Duns Scotus, München, 1938; Walter Hoeres, Der Wille als reine Vollkommenheit nach Duns Scotus, München, 1962; Robert Prentice, "The Voluntar
ism of Duns Scotus," in Franciscan Studies, vol. 28, Annual VI, 1968; Berard Vogt, "The Metaphysics of Human Liberty in Duns Scotus," in Proceedings of the American Catholic Philosophical Association, vol. XVI, 1940.
39. Quoted from Wolter, op. cit., pp. 64, 73, and 57.
40. Quoted from Kristeller, op. cit., p. 58.
41. Quoted from Wolter, op. cit., p. 162. Author's translation.
42. Ibid., p. 161. Author's translation.
43. Ibid., n. 25 to sect. V, p. 184.
44. Ibid., p. 73.
45. Ibid., p. 75.
46. Ibid., p. 72. Gilson holds that the very notion of the infinite is Christian in origin. "The Greeks prior to the Christian era never conceived infinity save as an imperfection." See The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy, p. 55.
47. See Walter, op. cit., p. 130.
48. Quoted from Stadter, op. cit., p. 315.
49. Quoted from Auer, op. cit., p. 86.
50. Quoted from Vogt, op. cit., p. 34.
51. Ibid.
52. Quoted from Kahl, op. cit., pp. 86–87.
53. Bettoni, Duns Scotus, p. 76.
54. See Bernardine M. Bonansea, "Duns Scotus' Voluntarism," in Ryan and Bonansea, op. cit., p. 92. "Non possum velle esse miserum;...sed ex hoc non sequitur, ergo necessario volo beatitudinem, quia nullum velle necessario elicitur a volúntate," p. 93, n. 38.
55. See ibid., pp. 89–90 and n. 28. Bonansea enumerates the passages "which seem to indicate the possibility for the will to seek evil as evil" (p. 89, n. 25).
56. Quoted from Vogt, op. cit., p. 31.
57. Bonansea, op. cit., p. 94, n. 44.
58. See Vogt, op. cit., p. 29, and Bonansea, op. cit., p. 86, n. 13: "Voluntas naturalis non est voluntas, nec velle naturale est velle."
59. Quoted from Hoeres, op. cit., pp. 113–114.
60. Ibid., p. 151. The quotation is from Auer, op. cit., p. 149.
61. Hoeres, op. cit., p. 120. So long as the definitive edition of Duns Scotus' works is not completed, a number of questions will remain open concerning his teachings on these matters.
62. Bettoni, Duns Scotus, p. 187.
63. Ibid., p. 188.
64. See Stadter, op. cit., especially the section on Petrus Johannes Olivi, pp. 144–167.
65. See Bettoni, Duns Scotus, p. 193. n.
66. Such phrases occur here and there. For a discussion of this sort of "introspection," see Béraud de Saint-Maurice, "The Contemporary Significance of Duns Scotus' Philosophy," in Ryan and Bonansea, op. cit., p. 354, and Ephrem Longpré, "The Psychology of Duns Scotus and Its Modernity," in The Franciscan Educational Conference, vol. XII, 1931.