Chapter 3.
Who they be that are called witches, with a manifest declaration of the cause that moveth men so commonly to think, and witches themselves to believe, that they can hurt children, cattle, et cetera, with words and imaginations, and of cozening witches.
One sort of such as are said to be witches are women which be commonly old, lame, bleary-eyed, pale, foul, and full of wrinkles; poor, sullen, superstitious, and papists; or such as know no religion, in whose drowsy minds the Devil hath bought20 a fine seat. So as, what mischief, mischance, calamity, or slaughter is brought to pass, they are easily persuaded the same is done by themselves, imprinting in their minds an earnest and constant imagination hereof. They are lean and deformed, showing melancholy in their faces to the horror of all that see them. They are doting, scolds, mad, devilish, and not much differing from them that are thought to be possessed with spirits. So firm and steadfast in their opinions, as whosoever shall only have respect to the constancy of their words uttered would easily believe they were true indeed.
These miserable wretches are so odious unto all their neighbors and so feared, as few dare offend them or deny them anything they ask. Whereby they take upon them, yea, and sometimes think, that they can do such things as are beyond the ability of human nature. These go from house to house and from door to door for a pot full of milk, yeast, drink, pottage,21 or some such relief, without the which they could hardly live,22 neither obtaining for their service and pains nor by their art nor yet at the Devil’s hands (with whom they are said to make a perfect and visible bargain) either beauty, money, promotion, wealth, worship, pleasure, honor, knowledge, learning, or any other benefit whatsoever.
It falleth out many times, that neither their necessities nor their expectation is answered or served in those places where they beg or borrow, but rather their lewdness is by their neighbors reproved. And further, in tract of time the witch waxeth odious and tedious to her neighbors, and they again are despised and despited of her, so as sometimes she curseth one and sometimes another and that from the master of the house, his wife, children, cattle, et cetera to the little pig that lieth in the sty. Thus in process of time they have all displeased her, and she hath wished evil luck unto them all, perhaps with curses and imprecations made in form. Doubtless (at length) some of her neighbors die or fall sick or some of their children are visited with diseases that vex them strangely, as apoplexies,23 epilepsies, convulsions, hot fevers, worms, et cetera. Which by ignorant parents are supposed to be the vengeance of witches. Yea, and their opinions and conceits are confirmed and maintained by unskillful physicians, according to the common saying Inscitiæ pallium maleficium & incantation.24 Witchcraft and enchantment is the cloak of ignorance, whereas indeed evil humors, and not strange words, witches, or spirits are the causes of such diseases. Also some of their cattle perish either by disease or mischance. Then they, upon whom such adversities fall, weighing the fame that goeth upon this woman (her words, displeasure, and curses meeting so justly with their misfortune) do not only conceive, but also are resolved, that all their mishaps are brought to pass by her only means.
The witch, on the other side, expecting her neighbor’s mischances and seeing things sometimes come to pass according to her wishes, curses, and incantations (for Bodin himself confesseth that not above two in a hundred of their witchings or wishings take effect), being called before a justice, by due examination of the circumstances is driven to see her imprecations and desires, and her neighbors’ harms and losses to concur, and as it were to take effect. And so confesseth that she (as a goddess) hath brought such things to pass. Wherein, not only she, but the accuser and also the justice are foully deceived and abused; as being thorough her confession and other circumstances persuaded (to the injury of God’s glory) that she hath done, or can do, that which is proper only to God himself.
Another sort of witches there are, which be absolutely cozeners.25 These take upon them, either for glory, fame, or gain, to do anything, which God or the Devil can do, either for foretelling of things to come, betraying of secrets, curing of maladies, or working of miracles. But of these I will talk more at large hereafter.
GEORGE GIFFORD, A DIALOGUE CONCERNING WITCHES AND WITCHCRAFTES 1593
One of the earliest writers dealing with the question of witchcraft in English was Puritan minister George Gifford of Maldon, Essex. His best known, and most entertaining, work is the Dialogue Concerning Witches and Witchcraftes of 1593, a lively discussion not only of the nature of witchcraft, but of the implications that witchcraft and witch trials held for the common Christian believer. Gifford’s dialogue was meant to be easily understood, and addressed itself to widespread cultural practices, such as seeking the counsel of cunning folk in cases of suspected bewitchment. Some historians have argued that Gifford’s approach was at root an anthropological one.1 Instead of treating witchcraft as an intellectual problem, as Reginald Scot did, or as a theological problem, as King James I would, Gifford explored witchcraft as a pastoral challenge: how could Christians be persuaded to give up their cultural beliefs in magic and turn their trust entirely over to God?2
The dialogue opens with a troubled man named Samuel, who is convinced that his family has been bewitched. The family suffered the sudden unexplained death of a valuable hog, and then his wife lost a number of chickens shortly afterward. Samuel considered making some sort of sacrifice to free himself from these unwelcome diabolical incursions, and was on the point of visiting a village cunning man for help, when he encountered his godly friend Daniel along the highway. Daniel suggested that the problems in Samuel’s life derived not from the malefaction of a witch, but from the Devil himself. Samuel invites Daniel back to his house to discuss the situation further, with the help of an intellectually pretentious schoolmaster.
Gifford was concerned primarily with helping the average person, and it was for this reason he used Samuel as a mouthpiece for mainstream early modern English beliefs about witches. Samuel thought that witches had power over physical bodies and property. Gifford, by way of Daniel, wanted to persuade Samuel that witches may exist, but are deluded if they think that any power lies with them. All witchly power derives from Satan himself, and so the best defense against witches is not legal or intellectual, but spiritual. According to Gifford, most actions against witches were motivated by greed, anger, fear, and hate, rather than by desire to grow in the eyes of God.3 Nothing makes Satan happier, Gifford suggested, than a rollicking witch trial in which neighbors turned against each other. Instead of worrying about witches out in the world, Gifford would rather his flock eradicated Satan’s influence over and presence in their own souls.4
A DIALOGUE CONCERNING WITCHES AND WITCHCRAFTES5
The Speakers.
Samuel, Daniel, the wife of Samuel, M. B., Schoolmaster, the good wife R.
[ . . . ]
Dan. What is the matter man? Do you take thought and care for the world? Take heed of that, for the scripture saith, worldly sorrow worketh death. 2. Corinthians 7–.10.6 It is a great sin rising from unbelief, and distrust in God’s providence, when men be over-pensive for the world.
Sam. Indeed my mind is troubled, but not for that which you say, for I hope in God I shall not want so long as I live.
Dan. Is it any trouble of conscience for sin? If it be, that may turn to good.
Sam. O, no, no. I know no cause why.
Dan. Why, what is it then? If I may be so bold, I pray you tell me. I think you take me for your friend.
Sam. Indeed I have always found you my very good friend, and I am sure you will give me the best counsel you can. Truly we dwell here in a bad country. I think even one of the worst in England.
Dan. Is it so? I think you dwell in a fine country, in a sweet wholesome air, and fruitful grounds.
Sam. Air, man? I find no fault with the air; there be naughty people.
Dan. Naughty people? Where shall a man dwell, and not fi
nd them? Swearers, liars, railers,7 slanderers, drunkards, adulterers, riotous, unthrifts, dicers,8 and proud high-minded persons, are everywhere to be found in great plenty.
Sam. Nay, I do not mean them. I care not for them. These witches, these evil-favored old witches do trouble me.
Dan. What? Do you take yourself to be bewitched?
Sam. No, no, I trust no evil spirit can hurt me, but I hear of much harm done by them. They lame men and kill their cattle. Yea, they destroy both men and children. They say there is scarce any town or village in all this shire, but there is one or two witches at the least in it. In good sooth, I may tell it to you as to my friend, when I go but into my closes, I am afraid, for I see now and then a hare; which my conscience giveth me is a witch, or some witch’s spirit, she stareth so upon me. And sometimes I see an ugly weasel run through my yard, and there is a foul great cat sometimes in my barn, which I have no liking unto.
Dan. You never had no hurt done yet, had you, by any witch?
Sam. Trust me, I cannot tell, but I fear me I have, for there be two or three in our town which I like not, but especially an old woman. I have been as careful to please her as ever I was to please mine own mother, and to give her ever anon one thing or other, and yet methinks she frowns at me now and then. And I had a hog which eat his meat with his fellows and was very well to our thinking overnight, and in the morning he was stark dead. My wife hath had five or six hens even of late dead. Some of my neighbors wish me to burn something alive, as a hen or a hog.9 Others will me in time to seek help at the hand of some cunning man, before I have any further harm. I would be glad to do for the best.
Dan. Have you any cunning man hereabout, that doth help?
Sam. There is one, they say, here a twenty miles off at T. B., which hath helped many. And thus much I know, there was one of mine acquaintance but two miles hence, which had great losses. He lost two or three kin; six hogs, he would not have took fifteen shillings a hog for them; and a mare. He went to that same man, and told him he suspected an old woman in the parish. And I think he told me, that he showed him her in a glass,10 and told him she had three or four imps, some call them puckerels,11 one like a gray cat, another like a weasel, another like a mouse. A vengeance take them. It is great pity the country is not rid of them, and told him also what he should do. It is half a year ago, and he never had any hurt since. There is also a woman at R. H. five and twenty miles hence, that hath a great name, and great resort there is daily unto her. A neighbor of mine had his child taken lame, a girl of ten years old, and such a pain in her back, that she could not sit upright. He went to that woman. She told him he had some bad neighbor. The child was forespoken, as he suspected. Marry, if he would go home, and bring her some of the clothes which the child lay in all night, she would tell him certainly. He went home, and put a table napkin about her neck all night, and in the morning took it with him, and she told him the girl was bewitched in deed, and so told him what he should do, and he had remedy. The girl is as well at this day, and a pretty quick girl. There was another of my neighbors had his wife much troubled, and he went to her, and she told him, his wife was haunted with a fairy. I cannot tell what she bade him do, but the woman is merry at this hour. I have heard, I dare not say it is so, that she weareth about her Saint John’s Gospel, or some part of it.12
Dan. If you have such cunning men and women, what need you be so much afraid?
Sam. Alas man, I could time it to go and some counsel me to go to the man at T. B. and some to the woman at R. H. And between them both I have lingered the time, and fear I may be spoiled before I get remedy. Some wish me to beat and claw the witch until I fetch blood on her, and to threaten her that I will have her hanged. If I knew which were the best I would do it.
Dan. I perceive your danger is between two stools.13
Sam. It is very true. If I had heard but of one, I should have gone ere this time, and I am glad that I met with you. I pray you let me have your best counsel. I trust you bear me good will.
Dan. Truly I will give you the best counsel I can, which I am sure shall do you good, if you will follow it, for indeed I pity your case, it is most certain you are bewitched.
Sam. Bewitched? Do you think I am bewitched? I feel no harm in my body. You make me more afraid.
Dan. Nay, I do not think that the old woman hath bewitched you, or that your body is bewitched, but the Devil hath bewitched your mind, with blindness and unbelief, to draw you from God, even to worship himself, by seeking help at the hands of devils. It is a lamentable case to see how the Devil hath bewitched thousands at this day to run after him: and even to offer sacrifice unto him.14
Sam. I defy the Devil. Worship him? Fie upon him. I hate him with all my heart. Do you think any seek help at his hands? We seek help against him. I think he never doth good. He hurteth, but he never helpeth any.
Dan. It is not in these matters to be taken as we imagine, but as the word of God teacheth. What though a man think he worshippeth not devils nor seeketh not help at their hands, as he is persuaded, nor hath any such intent, is he ever the near, when as yet it shall be found by God’s word, that he doth worship them, and seek unto them for help?
Sam. Do you think then that there be no witches? Doth not God suffer wicked people to do harm? Or do you think that the cunning men do help by the Devil? I would be glad to reason with you, but I have small knowledge in the scriptures. We have a schoolmaster that is a good pretty scholar, they say, in the Latin tongue, one M. B. He is gone to my house even now. I pray you let me entreat you to go thither. You two may reason the matter, for you are learned.
Dan. I could be content, but it will ask some time, and I am going to such a place upon special business.
Sam. I pray you let me entreat you: four or five hours is not so much.
Dan. Well, I will go with you.
Sam. Wife, I have brought an old friend of mine. I pray thee bid him welcome.
The wife.15 He is very welcome. But truly man, I am angry with you, and half out of patience, that you go not to seek help against yonder same old beast. I have another hen dead this night. Other men can seek remedy. Here is M. B. tells me, that the good wife R. all the last week could not make her butter come.16 She never rested until she had got her husband out to the woman at R. H. and when he came home, they did but heat a spit red hot, and thrust into the cream, using certain words, as she willed him, and it came as kindly as any butter that ever she made. I met the old filth this morning. Lord, how sourly she looked upon me, and mumbled as she went. I heard part of her words. Ah (quoth she), you have an honest man to your husband. I hear how he doth use me. In truth, husband, my stomach did so rise against her, that I could have found in my heart to have flown upon her, and scratched her, but that I feared she would be too strong for me. It is a lusty old queen. I wished that the good wife R. had been with me. I pray you, good husband, let me entreat you to go to that same good woman. You may ride thither in half a day.
Sam. Wife, I pray thee be content. I have entreated this, mine old friend, to reason with M. B. for he tells me that we be in a very foul error.
M. B. I suppose, so far as my learning and capacity do extend, that small reasoning may serve. The word of God doth show plainly that there be witches and commandeth they should be put to death. Experience hath taught too many, what harms they do. And if any have the gift to minister help against them, shall we refuse it? Shall we not drink when we are a thirst? Shall we not warm us when we are a cold? It is pity that any man should open his mouth any way to defend them, their impiety is so great.
Dan. For my part, I go not about to defend witches. I deny not but that the Devil worketh by them and that they ought to be put to death. We ought also to seek remedy against them. But as I told my friend, the Devil doth bewitch men by means of these witches, and lead them from God, even to follow himself, to offer sacrifice unto him to worship him, to obey his will, to commit many griev
ous sins, and to be drowned in manifold errors.
[ . . . ]
M. B. I heard you say, if I did not mistake your speech, that there be witches that work by the Devil. But yet I pray you tell me, do you think there be such? I know some are of opinion there be none.17
Dan. It is so evident by the scriptures, and in all experience, that there be witches which work by the Devil, or rather, I may say, the Devil worketh by them, that such as go about to prove the contrary, do show themselves but cavilers.18
M. B. I am glad we agree in that point. I hope we shall in the rest. What say you to this? That the witches have their spirits. Some hath one; some hath more, as two, three, four, or five, some in one likeness, and some in another, as like cats, weasels, toads, or mice, whom they nourish with milk, or with a chicken, or by letting them suck now and then a drop of blood, whom they call when they be offended with any, and send them to hurt them in their bodies; yea, to kill them, and to kill their cattle.
Dan. Here is great deceit, and great illusion. Here the Devil leadeth the ignorant people into foul errors, by which he draweth them headlong into many grievous sins.