BY WILL DURANT
The Story of Philosophy
Transition
The Pleasure of Philosophy
Adventures in Genius
BY WILL AND ARIEL DURANT
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
1. Our Oriental Heritage
2. The Life of Greece
3. Caesar and Christ
4. The Age of Faith
5. The Renaissance
6. The Reformation
7. The Age of Reason Begins
8. The Age of Louis XIV
9. The Age of Voltaire
10. Rousseau and Revolution
11. The Age of Napoleon
The Lessons of History
Interpretation of Life
A Dual Autobiography
COPYRIGHT 1953 BY WILL DURANT
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
INCLUDING THE RIGHT OF REPRODUCTION
IN WHOLE OR IN PART IN ANY FORM
PUBLISHED BY SIMON AND SCHUSTER
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eISBN-13: 978-1-45164-762-4
TO MY WIFE
Who has shared in a hundred ways
in writing this book
To the Reader
THIS volume, while complete and independent in itself, forms Part V in a history of civilization written on the “integral method” of uniting in one narrative all phases of human activity. The series began in 1935 with Our Oriental Heritage—a history of Egypt and the Near and Middle East to 323 B.C, and of India, China, and Japan to 1930. Part II, The Life of Greece (1939), recorded Greek history and culture from the beginnings, and the history of the Near and Middle East from 323 B.C., to the Roman Conquest in 146 B.C. Part III, Caesar and Christ (1944), carried the story of white civilization to A.D. 325, centered around the rise and fall of Rome, and the first centuries of Christianity. Part IV, The Age of Faith (1950), continued the narrative to 1300, including Byzantine civilization, Islam, Judaism, and Latin Christendom.
The present work aims to give a rounded picture of all phases of human life in the Italy of the Renaissance—from the birth of Petrarch in 1304 to the death of Titian in 1576. The term “Renaissance” will in this book refer only to Italy. The word does not properly apply to such native maturations, rather than exotic rebirths, as took place in France, Spain, England, and the Lowlands in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; and even in Italy the designation lays undue stress on that revival of classic letters which was of less importance to Italy than the ripening of its economy and culture into their own characteristic forms.
In order to avoid a superficial repetition of the excellent books already in print on this subject, the scale of treatment has been enlarged as compared with the previous volumes in the series. Moreover, as we approach our own epoch our interests are more widely engaged; we still feel in our blood the sap of those effervescent centuries in which modern Europe began; and their ideas, events, and personalities are especially vital to an understanding of our own minds and times.
I have studied at first hand nearly all the works of art mentioned in this book, but I lack the technical training that would give me the right to express any critical judgments. I have ventured, however, to voice my impressions and preferences. Modern art is absorbed in a forgivable reaction against the Renaissance, and is zealously experimenting to find new forms of beauty or significance. Our appreciation of the Renaissance should not deter us from welcoming every sincere and disciplined attempt to imitate not its products but its originality.
If circumstances permit, a sixth volume, probably under the title of The Age of the Reformation, will appear three or four years hence, covering the history of Christian, Islamic, and Judaic civilization outside of Italy from 1300, and in Italy from 1576 to 1648. The enlarged scale of treatment, and the imminence of senility, make it advisable to plan an end of the series with a seventh volume, The Age of Reason, which may carry the tale to the beginning of the nineteenth century.
Acknowledgments are due to Mr. Joseph Auslander for permission to quote his fine translation of a sonnet by Petrarch; to the Cambridge University Press for permission to quote a paragraph by Richard Garnett from Volume I of The Cambridge Modern History; to my wife for a hundred illuminating suggestions and conversations; to Dr. C. Edward Hopkin for aid in classifying the material; to Miss Mary Kaufman and Miss Flora Kaufman for varied clerical assistance; to Mrs. Edith Digate for her highly competent typing of a difficult manuscript; and to Wallace Brockway for expert editing and advice.
A tardy acknowledgment is due to my publishers. In my long association with them I have found them ideal. They have given me every consideration, have shared with me the expenses of research, and have never let calculations of profit or loss determine our relations. In 1926 they published my Story of Philosophy hoping only to “break even.” We have been together now for twenty-seven years; and it has been for me a fortunate and happy union.
Notes on the Use of This Book
1. Dates of birth and death are omitted from the text, but will be found in the index.
2. Passages in reduced type are for students and may be safely omitted by the general reader.
3. In locating works of art the name of the city will be used to indicate its leading picture gallery, e.g.:
Bergamo, the Accademia Carrara;
Berlin, the Kaiser-Friedrich Museum;
Brescia, the Pinacoteca Martinengo;
Chicago, the Art Institute;
Cleveland, the Museum of Art;
Detroit, the Institute of Art;
Leningrad, the Hermitage;
London, the National Gallery;
Madrid, the Prado;
Mantua, the Palazzo Ducale;
Milan, the Brera Gallery;
Modena, the Pinacoteca Estense;
Naples, the Museo Nazionale;
New York, the Metropolitan Museum of Art;
Parma, the Royal Gallery;
Venice, the Academy;
Washington, the National Gallery; but the great galleries of Florence will be distinguished by their names, Uffizi and Pitti, as will the Borghese in Rome.
WILL DURANT
Los Angeles, December 1, 1952
Table of Contents
BOOK I. PRELUDE: 1300–77
Chapter I: THE AGE OF PETRARCH AND BOCCACCIO: 1304–75
I. The Father of the Renaissance
II. Naples and Boccaccio
III. The Poet Laureate
IV. Rienzo’s Revolution
V. The Wandering Scholar
VI. Giotto
VII. The Decameron
VIII. Siena
IX. Milan
X. Venice and Genoa
XI. Twilight of the Trecento
XII. Perspective
Chapter II: THE POPES IN AVIGNON: 1309–77
I. The Babylonian Captivity
II. The Road to Rome
III. The Christian Life
BOOK II: THE FLORENTINE RENAISSANCE: 1378–1534
Chapter III: THE RISE OF THE MEDICI: 1378–1464
I. The Setting
II. The Material Basis
III. Cosimo Pater Patriae
IV. The Humanists
V. Architecture: the Age of Brunellesco
VI. Sculpture
1. Ghiberti
&nb
sp; 2. Donatello
3. Luca della Robbia
VII. Painting
1. Masaccio
2. Fra Angelico
3. Fra Filippo Lippi
VIII. A Miscellany
Chapter IV: THE GOLDEN AGE: 1464–92
I. Piero il Gottoso
II. The Development of Lorenzo
III. Lorenzo the Magnificent
IV. Literature: the Age of Politian
V. Architecture and Sculpture: The Age of Verrocchio
VI. Painting
1. Ghirlandaio
2. Botticelli
VII. Lorenzo Passes
Chapter V: SAVONAROLA AND THE REPUBLIC: 1492–1534
I. The Prophet
II. The Statesman
III. The Martyr
IV. The Republic and the Medici
V. Art under the Revolution
BOOK III: ITALIAN PAGEANT: 1378–1534
Chapter VI: MILAN
I. Background
II. Piedmont and Liguria
III. Pavia
IV. The Visconti: 1378–1447
V. The Sforzas: 1450–1500
VI. Letters
VII. Arts
Chapter VII: LEONARDO DA VINCI
I. Development: 1452–83
II. In Milan: 1482–99
III. In Florence: 1500–01, 1503–06
IV. In Milan and Rome: 1506–16
V. The Man
VI. The Inventor
VII. The Scientist
VIII. In France: 1516–19
IX. The School of Leonardo
Chapter VIII: TUSCANY AND UMBRIA
I. Piero della Francesca
II. Signorelli
III. Siena and Sodoma
IV. Umbria and the Baglioni
V. Perugino
Chapter IX: MANTUA
I. Vittorino da Feltre
II. Andrea Mantegna
III. The First Lady of the World
Chapter X: FERRARA
I. The House of Este
II. The Arts in Ferrara
III. Letters
IV. Ariosto
V. Aftermath
Chapter XI: VENICE AND HER REALM
I. Padua
II. Venetian Economy
III. Venetian Government
IV. Venetian Life
V. Venetian Art
1. Architecture and Sculpture
2. The Bellini
3. From the Bellini to Giorgione
4. Giorgione
5. Titian: the Formative Years
6. Minor Artists and Arts
VI. Venetian Letters
1. Aldus Manutius
2. Bembo
VII. Verona
Chapter XII: EMILIA AND THE MARCHES
I. Correggio
II. Bologna
III. Along the Emilian Way
IV. Urbino and Castiglione
Chapter XIII: THE KINGDOM OF NAPLES
I. Alfonso the Magnanimous
II. Ferrante
BOOK IV: THE ROMAN RENAISSANCE: 1378–1521
Chapter XIV: THE CRISIS IN THE CHURCH: 1378–1447
I. The Papal Schism: 1378–1417
II. The Councils and the Popes
III. The Triumph of the Papacy
Chapter XV: THE RENAISSANCE CAPTURES ROME: 1447–92
I. The Capital of the World
II. Nicholas V: 1447–55
III. Calixtus III: 1455–58
IV. Pius II: 1458–64
V. Paul II: 1464–71
VI. Sixtus IV: 1471–84
VII. Innocent VIII: 1484–92
Chapter XVI: THE BORGIAS
I. Cardinal borgia
II. Alexander VI: 1492–1503
III. The Sinner
IV. Caesar Borgia
V. Lucrezia Borgia
VI. The Collapse of the Borgia Power
Chapter XVII: JULIUS II: 1503–13
I. The Warrior
II. Roman Architecture: 1492–1513
III. The Young Raphael
1. Development: 1483–1508
2. Raphael and Julius II: 1508–13
IV. Michelangelo
1. Youth: 1475–1505
2. Michelangelo and Julius II: 1505–13
Chapter XVIII: LEO X: 1513–21
I. The Boy Cardinal
II. The Happy Pope
III. Scholars
IV. Poets
V. The Recovery of Classic Art
VI. Michelangelo and Leo X: 1513–20
VII. Raphael and Leo X: 1513–20
VIII. Agostino Chigi
IX. Raphael: the Last Phase
X. Leo Politicus
BOOK V: DEBACLE
Chapter XIX: THE INTELLECTUAL REVOLT
I. The Occult
II. Science
III. Medicine
IV. Philosophy
V. Guicciardini
VI. Machiavelli
1. The Diplomat
2. The Author and the Man
3. The Philosopher
4. Considerations
Chapter XX: THE MORAL RELEASE
I. The Founts and Forms of Immorality
II. The Morals of the Clergy
III. Sexual Morality
IV. Renaissance Man
V. Renaissance Woman
VI. The Home
VII. Public Morality
VIII. Manners and Amusements
IX. Drama
X. Music
XI. Perspective
Chapter XXI: THE POLITICAL COLLAPSE: 1494–1534
I. France Discovers Italy: 1494–95
II. The Attack Renewed: 1496–1505
III. The League of Cambrai: 1508–16
IV. Leo and Europe: 1513–21
V. Adrian VI: 1522–23
VI. Clement VII: the First Phase
VII. The Sack of Rome: 1527
VIII. Charles Triumphant: 1527–30
IX. Clement VII and the Arts
X. Michelangelo and Clement VII: 1520–34
XI. The End of an Age: 1528–34
BOOK VI: FINALE: 1534–76
Chapter XXII: SUNSET IN VENICE
I. Venice Reborn
II. Aretino
III. Titian and the Kings
IV. Tintoretto
V. Veronese
VI. Perspective
Chapter XXIII: THE WANING OF THE RENAISSANCE
I. The Decline of Italy
II. Science and Philosophy
III. Literature
IV. Twilight in Florence
V. Benvenuto Cellini
VI. Lesser Lights
VII. Michelangelo: the Last Phase
ENVOI
BIBLIOGRAPHY
NOTES
INDEX
List of Illustrations
The page number referred to in the captions is for a discussion of the particular painting or the artist, and sometimes both.
Part I. This section follows page 64
FIG. 1—GIOTTO: The Flight into Egypt
FIG. 2—SIMONE MARTINI: The Annunciation
FIG. 3—LORENZO GHIBERTI: Doors of the Baptistery
FIG. 4—DONATELLO: Crucifixion
FIG. 5—DONATELLO: David
FIG. 6—DONATELLO: Annunciation
FIG. 7—LUCA DELLA ROBBIA: Madonna and Child
FIG. 8—DONATELLO: Gattamelata
FIG. 9—MASACCIO: The Tribute Money
FIG. 10—FRA ANGELICO: The Annunciation
FIG. 11—FRA FILIPPO LIPPI: Virgin Adoring the Child
FIG. 12—ANDREA DEL VERROCHIO: The Baptism of Christ
FIG. 13—DOMENICO GHIRLANDAIO: Portrait of Count Sassetti (?) and Grandson
FIG. 14—SANDRO BOTTICELLI: The Birth of Venus
Part II. This section follows page 224
FIG. 15—ANDREA DEL SARTO: Madonna delle Arpie
FIG. 16—CRISTOFORO SOLARI: Tomb Effigies of Lodovico il Moro and Beatrice d’Este
FIG. 17—AMBROGIA DA PREDIS o
r LEONARDO DA VINCI: Portrait of Bianca Sforza
FIG. 18—LEONARDO DA VINCI: Virgin of the Rocks
FIG. 19—LEONARDO DA VINCI: Self-portrait
FIG. 20—LEONARDO DA VINCI: Mona Lisa
FIG. 21—PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA: Portrait of Duke Federigo da Montefeltro
FIG. 22—LUCA SIGNORELLI: The End of the World
FIG. 23—IACOPO DELLA QUERCIA: The Nativity
FIG. 24—IACOPO DELLA QUERCIA: Noah’s Ark
FIG. 25—PERUGINO: Self-portrait
FIG. 26—PINTURRICCHIO: The Nativity
FIG. 27—ANDREA MANTEGNA: Lodovico Gonzaga and His Family
FIG. 28—ANDREA MANTEGNA: Adoration of the Shepherds
FIG. 29—LEONARDO DA VINCI: Portrait of Isabella d’Este
FIG. 30—TITIAN: Portrait of Isabella d’Este
Part III. This section follows page 384
FIG. 31—GIOVANNI BELLINI: Madonna degli Alberetti
FIG. 32—GIOVANNI BELLINI: Portrait of Doge Leonardo Loredano
FIG. 33—GIORGIONE: Sleeping Venus
FIG. 34—GIORGIONE: Concert Champêtre
FIG. 35—TITIAN: Sacred and Profane Love
FIG. 36—TITIAN: Venus and Adonis
FIG. 37—VITTORE CARPACCIO: The Dream of St. Ursula
FIG. 38—TITIAN: Assumption of the Virgin
FIG. 39—CORREGGIO: Sts. John and Augustine
FIG. 40—CORREGGIO: [The Mystic] Marriage of St. Catherine
FIG. 41—PARMIGIANINO: Madonna della Rosa
FIG. 42—Majolica from Faenza
FIG. 43—RAPHAEL: The Pearl Madonna
FIG. 44—RAPHAEL: Portrait of Pope Julius II
FIG. 45—MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI: Pietà
FIG. 46—MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI: Creation of Adam
Part IV. This section follows page 608
FIG. 47—RAPHAEL and GIULIO ROMANO: The Transfiguration
FIG. 48—MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI: Tomb of Lorenzo de’ Medici
FIG. 49—TITIAN: Portrait of Aretino
FIG. 50—TITIAN: Portrait of Pope Paul III
FIG. 51—TITIAN: Portrait of Charles V
FIG. 52—TITIAN: Venus of Urbino
FIG. 53—TITIAN: Portrait of a Young Englishman
FIG. 54—TITIAN: Self-portrait
FIG. 55—TINTORETTO: The Miracle of St. Mark
FIG. 56—TINTORETTO: Presentation of the Virgin
FIG. 57—PAOLO VERONESE: Self-portrait
FIG. 58—PAOLO VERONESE: Portrait of Daniele Barbaro
FIG. 59—PAOLO VERONESE: The Rape of Europa
FIG. 60—PAOLO VERONESE: Mars and Venus
FIG. 61—DANIELE DA VOLTERRA: Bust of Michelangelo Buonarroti
BOOK I